I took the 23nMe DNA test in the summer of 2021, For me, this was the last thing i could do to dispel anyone accusing us of fraud, also having done quite alot of genealogy on my fathers side, i was really curious about my mothers links to nobility. This year has been a mix of working on both of their ancestries, finding new links between the family lines, seriously how inbred can someone be??

I have royal bloodlines from my mothers side with both of her parents having royalty within their seperate families, As i do with my father, from myself i have more than 6 lines that go back to royalty.

My Dna confirms this.

People can easily lie about their genealogy, I have seen many pretenders over the years and feel sorry for the want and need to be valued within our family and the  Royal Dragon Court, at the same time how do we know the royals at the time did not fudge said ancestry such as Alfred the Great, This is why i never insist on my genealogy dating back to Jesus or Odin as I use facts, records and logic. As much as we read the bible and have studies many different religions, Some of the bible does not give accurate accounts as it was rewriten by the jews, much of what we see in the world is propagander and confirmation biased. Seek and ye shall find. On  the other hand I'm grateful enough that many many people have written thousands of books and pieces of history about my grandparents, its very comforting to have the history of the world, family as creators and kings running through my veins.

So the results came back  and i found it so funny, very basic and not what i expected, To find out that i am Jewish on both my mother and fathers side was pretty amazing but it should have been expected as the bloodline of the Dragons are of Scythian descent.

Population Match Confidence Percent  Northwestern European 99.7%  Percent Northwestern European ancestry: 99.7. British & Irish 99.7%  Percent British & Irish ancestry: 99.7. Match Confidence level for United Kingdom: Highly Likely Match United Kingdom Highly Likely Match level for Ireland: Highly Likely Match Ireland Highly Likely Match . Ashkenazi Jewish 0.3%  Percent Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry: 0.3. E

Abbe, your maternal haplogroup is T1b. As our ancestors ventured out of eastern Africa, they branched off in diverse groups that crossed and recrossed the globe over tens of thousands of years. Some of their migrations can be traced through haplogroups, families of lineages that descend from a common ancestor. Your maternal haplogroup can reveal the path followed by the women of your maternal line.  Migrations of Your Maternal Line         

Haplogroup L 180,000 Years Ago If every person living today could trace his or her maternal line back over thousands of generations, all of our lines would meet at a single woman who lived in eastern Africa between 150,000 and 200,000 years ago. Though she was one of perhaps thousands of women alive at the time, only the diverse branches of her haplogroup have survived to today. The story of your maternal line begins with her.   T1 16,500 Years Ago Origin and Migrations of Haplogroup T1 Haplogroup T originated in the Middle East about 45,000 years ago, not long after humans emerged from Africa. The haplogroup mostly stayed in place until about 15,000 years ago, when the glaciers that had covered much of Eurasia during the Ice Age began to retreat. As Europe's climate warmed and its long-frozen landscape turned green, people began moving north into the Alps and beyond.  Your maternal line stems from the T1 branch of T. All the members of T1 trace their maternal lines back to a woman who lived about 16,500 years ago, when members of haplogroup T were still confined to the Middle East. After the development of agriculture in the region some people began traveling westward, bringing their crops and livestock to Europe about 9,000 years ago. Some of these people were women who belonged to T1, and today their descendants can be found from Britain in the west to Turkey and Syria in the east.  T1b 6,000 Years Ago Your maternal haplogroup, T1b, traces back to a woman who lived approximately 6,000 years ago. That's nearly 240 generations ago! What happened between then and now? As researchers and citizen scientists discover more about your haplogroup, new details may be added to the story of your maternal line.  T1b Today T1b is relatively uncommon among 23andMe customers. Today, you share your haplogroup with all the maternal-line descendants of the common ancestor of T1b, including other 23andMe customers.  1 in 1,500 23andMe customers share your haplogroup assignment.

My Fathers Marker is R1B1A.

I uploaded my raw data to my true ancestry and the results showed that I am related to every royal family throughout history, knowing that my ines has intertwined many times with my father and mother we started to question whether the dragon bloodline holds certain traits.

We have many times spoken about the gifts and magical abilities we have, is this something that only the dragon dna holds? What is the dna marker for our bloodline as many share variations that also match ours. Lol who was the first dragon? again we have discussed that it came from Egypt, but as with the jesus bloodline theory, how many of us can truely insist that the research we have done is correct and not  in  a biased way in order to find the conclusion that you want?, this goes with most theories, statistics and recording of data. as with the out of Africa theory or the works by sitchen and others that has been debunked.

Grand Princes of Kiev Z1a - Roman the Great (1152-1205) Grand Dukes of Lithuania Russian Royalty H3 - Peter II (1715-1730) Romanovs T2 - Nicholas II (1868-1918) H - Maria Feodorovna (1847-1928) H - Alexandra Feodorovna (1872-1918) Greek Royalty T2 - George I (1845-1913)

 H - Sophia of Prussia (1870-1932) H - Princess Alice of Battenberg (1885-1969) H - Alexander (1893-1920) H - George II (1890-1947) H - Paul (1901-1964) H - Anne-Marie (1946-) H - Pavlos, Crown Prince of Greece (1967-) Romanian Royalty H - Ferdinand I (1865-1927) H - Michael (1921-) Bulgarian Royalty Polish Royalty H - Boleslaw I Chrobry (967-1025) H - Catherine of Austria (1533-1572) H - Anna of Austria (1573-1598) H - Wladyslaw IV Vasa (1595-1648) H - Constance of Austria (1588-1631) H - John II Casimir Vasa (1609-1672) H - Eleonora Maria Josefa of Austria (1653-1697)

 T2 - Elisabeth of Austria (1436-1505) T2 - John I Albert (1459-1501) T2 - Alexander Jagiellon (1461-1506) T2 - Sigismund I of Poland (1467-1548)

 N1b - Marie Louise Gonzaga (1611-1667) N1b - Marie Therese de Bourbon (1666-1732) 

House of Grimaldi Portuguese Royalty H - Maria II (1819-1853) H - Pedro V (1837-1861) H - Luis I (1838-1889) Spanish Royalty U5b - Philip I of Castile (1478-1506) H - Margaret of Austria (1584-1611) H - Philip IV (1605-1665) H - Elisabeth of France (1602-1644) H - Mariana of Austria (1634-1696) H - Charles II (1661-1700) H - Marie Louise of Orleans (1662-1689) H - Maria Luisa of Savoy (1688-1714) H - Ferdinand VI (1713-1759) H - Isabella II (1830-1904) H - Alfonso XII (1857-1885) H - Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg (1887-1969) H - Sofia (1938-) H - Felipe, 

Prince of Asturias (1968-) N1b - Maria Amalia of Saxony (1724-1760) N1b -

 Charles IV of Spain (1748-1819) H3 - Maria Josepha of Saxony (1803-1829) Sardinian Royalty H - Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia (1701-1773) H3 - Marie Christina of the Two Sicilies (1779-1849) H3 - Maria Theresa of Tuscany (1801-1855) Dukes of Parma Italian Royalty H3 - Victor Emmanuel II (1820-1878) Grand Duke of Tuscany H - Archduchess Joanna of Austria (1547-1578) H - Ferdinando II de' Medici (1610-1670) 

French Royalty Z1a - Ingeborg of Denmark, Queen of France (1175-1236) U5b - Francis I (1494-1547) U5b - Henry IV (1553-1610) H - Marie de' Medici (1575-1642) H - Louis XIII (1601-1643) H - Maria Theresa of Spain (1638-1683) H - Louis, Dauphin of France (1661-1711) H - Louis XV (1710-1774) 

N1b - Louis XVI (1754-1793) N1b - Louis XVIII of France (1755-1824) N1b - Charles X of France (1757-1836)

 H3 - Marie-Antoinette (1755-1793) H3 - Louis XVII (1785-1795) H3 - Marie Louise of Austria (1791-1847) H3 - Maria Amalia of the Two Sicilies (1782-1866) Belgian Royalty H - Leopold I (1790-1865) H3 - Marie-Louise of France (1812-1850) H3 - Leopold II (1835-1909) H3 - Charlotte of Belgium (1840-1927) Grand Duke of Luxembourg H3 - William I (1772-1843) Stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland T2 - Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (1567-1625) Kings of Saxony H3 - Frederick Augustus II (1797-1854) H3 - John I (1801-1873) Prussian Royalty T2 - Frederick William I of Prussia (1688-1740) H3 - Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern (1715-1797) H3 - Frederick William II (1744-1797) H - Victoria of Prussia (1840-1901) H - Wilhelm II (1859-1941) Bohemian Royalty H - Boleslaus II the Pious (920-999) H - Anne of Bohemia and Hungary (1503-1546) H - Ferdinand IV of Bohemia and Hungary (1633-1654) 

U5b - Henry VI of Carinthia (1270-1335) U5b - Rudolf I of Habsburg (1282-1307) U5b - Joanna of Bavaria (1362-1386) U5b - Albert II of Germany (1397-1439) 

T2 - Elisabeth of Bohemia (1409-1442) T2 - Vladislas II of Bohemia and Hungary (1456-1516) T2 - Elizabeth Stuart (1596-1662) 

N1b - Maria Amalia of Austria (1701-1756) N1b - Maria Luisa of Spain (1745-1792) Arpad Dynasty Bavarian Royalty 

U5b - Louis II, Duke of Bavaria (1229-1294) U5b - Henry XIII, Duke of Bavaria (1235-1290) U5b - William II, Duke of Bavaria, Count of Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut (1365-1417) U5b - Albert II (1369-1397) U5b - John III, Duke of Bavaria-Straubing, Count of Holland and Hainaut (1374-1425) U5b - Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria-Landshut (1417-1479) German Royalty U5b - Elisabeth of Bavaria (1227-1273) U5b - Elizabeth of Carinthia (1262-1312) U5b - Frederick the Fair, Duke of Austria and King of Germany (1289-1330) U5b - Joanna of Bavaria, Queen of Germany and Bohemia (1362-1386) U5b - Albert II of Germany (1397-1439) Holy Roman Empire T2 -

 Barbara of Celje (1390-1451) H - Maximilian II of Habsburg (1527-1576) H - Ferdinand II of Habsburg (1578-1637) H - Leopold I of Habsburg (1640-1705)

 N1b - Maria Amalia of Austria (1701-1756) N1b - Maria Josepha of Bavaria (1739-1767) N1b - Maria Luisa of Spain (1745-1792) N1b - Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (1768-1835) H3 - Leopold II of Habsburg (1747-1792) Austrian Royalty U5b - Rudolf I of Habsburg, Duke of Austria and Styria, King of Bohemia, and titular King of Poland (1282-1307) U5b - Frederick I the Fair, Duke of Austria and Styria, and King of Germany (1289-1330) U5b - Leopold I of Habsburg, Duke of Austria and Styria (1290-1326) U5b - Albert II of Habsburg, Duke of Austria (1298-1358) U5b - Otto I of Habsburg, Duke of Austria (1301-1339)

 U5b - Albert II, King of Germany and Archduke of Austria (1397-1439) H3 - Maria Theresa (1717-1780) H3 - Joseph II (1741-1790) H3 - Ferdinand I (1793-1875) H3 - Maria Leopoldina of Austria (1797-1826) N1b - Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (1768-1835) H - Charles I (1887-1922) Swedish Royalty Z1a - Richeza of Poland, Queen of Sweden (1116-1156) Z1a - Valdemar I of Sweden (1239-1302) Z1a - Magnus III of Sweden (1240-1290) T2 - Gustav II Adolf (1594-1632) T2 - Charles X Gustav (1622-1660) H - Olof Skötkonung (980-1022) H - Christina of Sweden (1626-1689) H - Margaret of Connaught (1882-1920) H - Louise Mountbatten (1889-1965) H - Ingrid (1910-2000) H - Carl XVI Gustaf (1946-) Norwegian Royalty Z1a - Rikissa Birgersdotter of Sweden, Queen of Norway (1237-1288) T2 - Olav V (1903-1991) Danish Royalty H - Sigrid the Haughty (968-1014) H - Harald II (980-1018) H - Canute the Great (994-1035) H - Sweyn II Estridson (1019-1076) H - Margrethe II (1940-) Z1a - Canute V of Denmark (1129-1157) Z1a - Sophia of Minsk, Queen consort of Denmark (1140-1198) Z1a - King Canute VI of Denmark (1163-1202) Z1a - King Valdemar II of Denmark (1170-1241) 

Z1a - Queen Richeza of Denmark (1190-1220) T2 - Elizabeth (1524-1586) T2 - Anne (1574-1619) T2 - Christian III T2 - Christian IV T2 - Frederick VI T2 - Christian VIII T2 - Frederick VIII (1843-1912) H3 - Juliana Maria of Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel (1729-1796) Scottish Royalty U5b - James III (1451-1488) 

Clan MacKintosh Clan Douglas Clan McNab Clan Comyn Clan Abercrombie Clan Abernathy Clan Agnew Clan Ainslie Clan Bayne Clan Baird Clan Barron Clan Hamilton Clan Lindsay Clan Graham Clan MacDonald Clan Home Clan Gordon Clan Swinton Clan Spence Clan Skene Clan Paden Clan Nesbitt Clan Menzies Clan Napier Clan Moffat Clan Grant Clan Bruce Clan Sutherland Clan Campbell Clan Drummond Clan MacPherson Clan Lyon Clan Munro Clan Montgomery Clan MacDougall Clan Cochrane Clan Sinclair Clan Erskine Clan Boyle Clan Murray Clan Cameron Clan Mackenzie Clan Macbean Clan Barclay Clan Boyd Clan Armstrong Clan MacLaren Clan Buchanan Clan MacGregor Clan MacLean Clan Colquhoun Clan Stirling Clan Donnachaidh Clan Cathcart Clan Kirkpatrick Clan Carruthers Clan Galbraith

 English Royalty T2 - Charles I (1600-1649) T2 - George I (1660-1727) T2 - George III (1738-1820) T2 - Alexandra of Denmark (1844-1925) T2 - George V (1865-1936) H - Henrietta Maria of France (1609-1669) H - Charles II (1630-1685) H - James II (1633-1701) H - William III (1650-1702) H - Victoria (1819-1901) H - Edward VII (1841-1910) H - Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh J1c2c - Edward IV (1442-1483) J1c2c - Richard III (1452-1485) R30b - Prince William, Duke of Cambridge Ancient Egypt Persian Royalty Chinese Royalty Saudi Royalty Famous People H - Napoleon I (1769-1821) H3 - Napoleon II (1811-1832)

Imperial House of Japan D1a2a1a2b1a1a8a - Emperor Seiwa (850-881) Nakatomi Clan O1b2a1a1c - Nakatomi no Amahisa-no-kimi Fujiwara Clan O1b2a1a1 - Fujiwara no Kamatari (668) Clan Baxter R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a6c - Reginar Longneck Count of Hainaut (850) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a6c - William Baxtare (1312) Clan Riddell R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1i2 - Gervase Ridale (1116) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1i2 - Sir William Riddell (1296) Clan Guthrie R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5b - Alexander Guthrie (1442) Clan Glen R1b1a1b1a1a1c2b3c2a - Colban del Glen (1328) Clan Gray R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1a - Fulbert de Gray (1066) Clan Pollock I2a1b1a2b1a2a1a1a1a3a1 - Petrus de Polos (1163) 

Clan Watson R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1e - John Watson (1392) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1e - George Watson (1723) Clan Greer R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a5 - Gilbert Grierson (1420) Clan Blair R1b1a1b1b3a1a1b - John Francis de Blair (1165-1214) Clan Dundas R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1e - Serie de Dundas (1296) Clan Wishart R1b1a1b1a1a2a1 - John Wischard (1245) Clan Wemyss R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5a - Sir John Wemyss (1421) 

Clan Weir R1b1a1b1a1a2b - Radulphus de Vere (1150) Clan Lockhart R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1b1 - Sir Simon Locard (1300-1371) Clan Durie I2a1b1a1a1a - Duncan de Dury (1258) Clan Fletcher R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2c1a1a - Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun (1653-1716) Clan Mac Gobhann R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d3b1b2 - Neil Gow (1727) Clan Coyne R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1b1 - Joseph Sterling Coyne (1803-1868) 

Clan Mackendrick R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5a2a1a3 - Big Henry son of Nechtan (900) Clan Lennox R1b1a1b1a1a2c1b1a - Mathew Earl of Lennox (1511) Clan Leslie I1a3a1a2a1 - George Leslie Earl of Rothes (1447) Clan Stewart R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1b - Walter Flaad High Steward of Scotland (1164) Clan MacEwan R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5a2a1a1 - Swene MacEwen (1493) Clan MacNaughten R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5d3a - Gilchrist Macnachten (1297) Clan Vans R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2a1a - William de Vaus of Direlton (1384) 

Clan Urquhart I1a1b1a1e2c4a - William de Urquhart High Sheriff of Cromarty (1325-1395) Clan MacTavish R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1c - Sir Thomas Cambel (1292) Clan MacQuarrie R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1a3 - John Macquarrie of Ulva (1473) Clan Morrison R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5b1a1a3a3 - Hutcheon Morrison (1550) Clan Johnstone R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a3a2 - John Johnstone (1194) Premyslid Dynasty R1b1a2a1a2c1b1b1a3a1 - Borivoj I (870-889) R1b1a2a1a2c1b1b1a3a1 - Spythinev (895-915) R1b1a2a1a2c1b1b1a3a1 - Vratislaus (915-921) R1b1a2a1a2c1b1b1a3a1 - Saint Wenceslaus (921-935) R1b1a2a1a2c1b1b1a3a1 - Bolesalus I the Cruel (935-972) R1b1a2a1a2c1b1b1a3a1 - Bolesalus II the Pious (972-999) R1b1a2a1a2c1b1b1a3a1 - Boleslaus III the Red-haired (999-1002) 

Clan MacAulay R1b1a1b1a1a2a6 - Kenneth MacAlpin King of the Picts (843-858) Clan MacArthur R1b1a1b1a1a1c1 - Iain MacArthur (1427) Clan MacGillivray R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b5a1 - Malcolm MacGillivray (1609) Clan ODuffy R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5d3a1a - Murdagh ODuffy Archbishop of Tuam (1075-1150) Clan MacPhee R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4d1 - Malcolm Macfie of Colonsay (1615) Clan Lamont R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a1 - Sir Laumon (1235) Clan Davidson I1a2a2a4b2c2 - Henry Davidson (1762) Clan MacCallum R1b1a1b1a1a1c1b - Ronald MacCaullum (1510) Clan Ryan R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Righin mac Dubhghall (1268) Clan OLeary R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a3a2a1a2a1 - Lugaid Mac Con (173-203) Clan Hodnett R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5b1a1a4a - William de Hodenet (1272) Clan Costello R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2a1 - Gilbert de Nangle (1193) Clan Dillon R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2b2b1 - Sir Henry de Leon (1169) Clan Tuite R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d7 - John de Tuite (1302) Clan Cotter R1b1a1b1a1a1c2b1b4d - Ottar King of Dublin (1142) Clan Crowley R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a3a2a1b1a - Auliff OCrowley (1488) Clan Carroll R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5d - Domhnall OCarroll King of Ely (1241) Clan Dunn R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1c1 - Gillananaomh ODuinn (1102-1160) Clan Kelly R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a2 - Cellach mac Fionachta (850) Clan Devlin R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a2c - ODevlin Bishop of Kells (1211) Clan McNamara R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2a1 - Chieftain Cumara (1099) Clan Barrett R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2b2b - John Baret (1086) Clan Prendergast R1a1a1a1b1a3a2 - Maurice Lord of Prendergast (1172) Clan Bissett R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a1a - Walter Byset Lord of Aboyne (1242) 

Clan Plunkett R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a1a1a1b1 - Richard Plunkett (1340-1393) Clan Walsh R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2b1a1a2a - Walter Walsh (1572) Clan McQuillan R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5d3a1a - Hugelin de Mandeville Clan McMonagle R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a1a1a2 - Bishop Patrick Mac Moengal (1366) Clan Mac Suibhne R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1a1 - Dubhghall Mac Suibhne (1232-1262) Clan Doherty R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a1a1a2a - Donagh Dochartach (900) Clan McDonnell R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5d3a1a - Mac Dhomhnaill (1427) Clan Madden R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b - Madudan mac Gadhra Mor (-1008) Clan Mooney R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5a2a1a1 - Rory OMooney (1556) Clan OKeeffe R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a3a2a1a2c - Cathal mac Finguine (742) Clan Moore R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5b1a1a2a1 - William de More (1086) 

Clan Reynolds R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b4a1a1 - Eolais mac Biobhsach (900) Clan ORourke R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a3a - King Fergal ua Ruairc (961) Clan OFlaherty R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a3a - Muireadhach ua Flaithbheartach (1034) Clan MacCarthy R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5a1a - Muireadhach Mac Carthaigh (1092) Clan Fitzgerald R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a3a2a1b1a2 - Gerald of Windsor (1075-1135) Clan Burke R1a1a1b1a2b3a3a1a2c2a - William de Burgh (1160-1206) Clan MacGuire R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a1a1a1b - Cormac ua Cuinn (204-244) Clan OSullivan R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a3a2 - Suilebhan mac Maolura (862) Clan Jordan R1b1a1b1a1a2a5 - Jordan de Exeter (1239-1258) Clan Dwyer R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Dubhuir mac Spealain (183) Clan Keating R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2b1 - Geoffrey Keating (1569-1644) Clan Cogan R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a1a1a - Milo de Cogan (1182) Clan OHara R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2b3a1 - Chief Eaghra (976) Clan Magennis R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a1a1a1 - Aedh Mor Magennis (1153) Clan Mac Oisdealbhaigh R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2a1 - Oisdealb (1193) Clan Chaomanach R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4a - Donal Kavanagh (1171-1175) Clan Eustace I1a2a1a1a1a2b - Bishop of Ely (1215) Clan Butler R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2a1 - Theobald Walter (1205) Clan Le Poer I1a3g - Conmore Count of Poher (490) Clan Carnegie R1b1a1b1a1a1b1a1a - Duthac de Carnegie (1401) Clan McQueen R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2b2b1 - Domhnall Mac Raghnuill (1250) Clan Farquharson R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b3 - Finla Mor (1547) Clan Kennedy R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2a - John Kennedy of Dunure (1372) Clan Ruthven R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5a2a1a1 - Sir Walter Ruthven (1296) Clan MacKay R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2c1 - Iye Mackay (1210)

 Clan Chisholm I1a1b1a1e2e - Sir Robert de Cheseholme (1359) Clan MacKinnon R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1a3 - Findanus (900) Clan MacLachlan R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a2a2 - Gilchrist Maclachlan (1230) Clan Ogilvie R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5a - Patrick de Ogilvy (1296) Clan Scott R1b1a1b1a1a1c2b2a1b1b1a1 - Henricus le Scotte (1195) Clan Cockburn R1b1a1b1a1a1b1a1a - Sir Roberto de Cokeburn (1261) Clan MacMillan R1b1a1b1a1a1c1b - Gille Chriosd Clan MacLellan R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d3b1b1 - Duncan MacLellan (1217) Clan MacAlister R1b1a1b1a1a2c1b1a - Alasdair Mor (1253) Clan MacFarlane R1b1a1b1a1a2c1b1a - Donnchadh Mac Pharlain (1544) Clan LaMont R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1a - Sir Laumon (1235) Clan MacInnes R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1b - Aonghais Mor (1294) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1b - Aonghais Og (1330) Clan Oliphant R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a6c - Roger Olifard (1093) Clan Elliott R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2a1d1 - Gilbert Scott Elliot (1364) Clan Kerr R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a2a - William Ker of Kersland joined Wallace (1296) Clan MacNeil R1b1a1b1a1a2a1b2 - Gilleonan Macneil (1427) Clan Brodie R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1a - Malcolm Brodie (1249-1285)

 Clan Gunn R1b1a1b1a1a1b1a - George Gunn Coroner of Caithness (1380-1464) Clan Keith R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5c1b1a - Sir Robert de Keith (1316) Clan Pringle R1b1a1b1a1a1c2f - David Pringle (1513) Clan Hay R1b1a1b1a1a2b1 - William II de Haya (1160) Clan Dunbar R1b1a1b1a1a1b1a1a - Gospatric Earl of Northumbria (1073) Clan Fraser R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1e1 - Simon Fraser (1306) Clan MacThomas R1b1a1b1a1a1b - Thomas Tomaidh Mor (1430) Clan Ross R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2 - Fearchar (1214-1249) Clan Mac Giolla Bhrighde I1a2a1a1a2a2a - John MacGilbride Bishop of Raphoe (1440) Clan Wallace R1b1a1b1a1a1c1a1 - William Wallace Clan Irwin R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1e1 - Scottish Clan House of Stewart R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d1a - Robert II King of Scotland (1371-1390) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d1a - Robert III (1390-1406) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d1a - James I (1406-1437) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d1a - James II (1437-1460) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d1a - James III (1460-1488) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d1a - James IV (1488-1513) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d1a - James V (1513-1542) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d1a - Mary (1542-1567) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d1a - James VI (1567-1625) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d1a1 - 

Sir John Stewart of Bonkyll (1245-1298) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1d1a3 - Alexander Stewart the Wolf of Badenoch Kingdom of Mann R1b1a1b1a1a2a1b2 - Olof the Black House of Lippe Detmold R1b1a1b1a1a2 - Bernhard I (1123) House von Amsberg R1a1a1b1a2b3a3a1b1 - Juergen Amtsberg (11640-686) R1a1a1b1a2b3a3a1b1 - Prince Claus of the Netherlands (1926-2002) R1a1a1b1a2b3a3a1b1 - King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands (1967-) House of Saxe-Coburg R1b1a1b1a1a1c1a1 - Ernest I Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (1784-1844) House of Capet J1a2b1b2c1 - King Hugh Capet of France Clann Mac Diarmada R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a2 - Dermot Mac Tadhg Mor 7th King of Moylurg (1124-1159) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a2 - Tadhg Mac Diarmata (1585) Clann ODomhnaill R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a1 - Niall Noigiallach King of Tara (405) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a1 

 HIGH KINGS OF IRELAND DNA MARKERS

Kings of Tyrconnell R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a1 - King of Leth Cuinn Clann Chindfaoladh R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a1a1a - Conall Gulban son of Niall of the Nine Hostages (464) Clann Ui Eidersceoil I2a1a2a1b1c1a - Lughaidh Laidhe Clann McGrath R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a2 - Echthighern Mac Cennetig (?-950) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a2 - Craith (970) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a2 - Archbishop Miller McGrath (1523-1622) Clann ODuibhgeannain R1a1a1b2a2a1d9c2a - Maine of Tethba R1a1a1b2a2a1d9c2a - Maelpeter ODuigennan Archdeacon of Breifny Clann OMaolagain R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a5 - Chiefs of Tir MacCarthainn Clann OLachtna R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a - Eochaidh Muighmheadhoin King of Ireland (350 AD) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a - Ui Fiachrach chiefs of the Two Bats and Glen Nephin R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a - Conghalach OLoughlin Bishop of Corcomroe (1281) Clann Mac Donnchada R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a3a2a1a2d1a - Donnchad Midi High King of Ireland (733-797) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a3a2a1a2d1a - Conchobar Mac Donnchada High King of Ireland (819-833) Clann Mac Murchadha R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4a1 - Diarmait Mac Murchada King of Leinster (1110-1171) Clann Coffey R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a3a2a1b1b - Dermot OCoffey (1580) Clann Dal gCais R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2a1a1 - Brian Boruma mac Cennetig (941-1014) Clann Deaghaidh R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2a1c - Chief Deaghaidh (934) 

Clann Laigin R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1 - Labraid Loingsech High King of Ireland (369) Clann Mac Bradaigh R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2c1a - Thomas Brady (1752-1827) Clann Mag Samhradhain R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1a1a3a - Muireadhach mac Samhradhain (1115-1148) Riddarhuset Gyllencreutz R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2c1a1b1b1 - Lars Tygesson (?-1625) Riddarhuset Lillieskold R1b1a1b1a1a1c2b2a1b2 - Jesperus Marci (?-1591) Riddarhuset Tawast N1a1a1a1a1a1a1b2a2a1 - Jakob Kaas (?-1529) Riddarhuset Loewenhielm I1a1b1b1c - Gudmund Norberg (1656-1739) Riddarhuset Aminoff G2a2b1a1b1a2 - Feodor Aminoff (1565-1628) Riddarhuset Uggla R1b1a1b1a1a1c2b2a1b1a1a2b2a - Claes Hansson (?-1529) Riddarhuset Silfverskiold R1a1a1b1a3a1a2e2a - Niklas Andersson Hylten (1635-1702) Riddarhuset Stierna R1a1a1b1a2b3a1d5a1b - Olof Olofsson Stjaerna (1430-1498) Riddarhuset Bure G2a2b2a1a1b1a1a2a1b2a1 - Olof Bure (1578-1655) Welsh Royalty R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5a1 - Pasgen ap Urien, King of Gwyr (522)

 Grand Princes of Kiev N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Vladimir II Monomakh (1053-1125) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Mstislav I of Kiev (1076-1132) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Yaropolk II of Kiev (1082-1139) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Viacheslav I of Kiev (1083-1154) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Yuri Dolgorukiy (1090-1157) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Iziaslav II of Kiev (1097-1154) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Rostislav I of Kiev (1110-1167) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Yaroslav II of Kiev (1132-1180) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Roman the Great (1152-1205) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Rurik Rostislavich (-1215) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Ingvar of Kiev (1152-1220) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Mstislav III of Kiev (died 1223) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Rostislav II of Kiev (1173-1214) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Vladimir IV Rurikovich (1187-1239) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Daniel of Galicia (1201-1264) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Alexander Nevsky (1220-1263) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Lev I of Galicia (1228-1301) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Yaroslav of Tver (1230-1271) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Yuri I of Galicia (1252-1308) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Andrew of Galicia (?-1323) N1a1a1a1a1a1a - Lev II of Galicia (?-1323) Grand Dukes of Lithuania N1a1 - House of Gediminas (1285-1440) Russian Royalty Romanovs R1b - Paul I (1754-1801) R1b - Alexander I (1777-1825) R1b - Constantine I (1779-1831) R1b - Nicholas I (1796-1855) R1b - Alexander II (1818-1881) R1b - Alexander III (1845-1894) R1b - Nicholas II (1868-1918) Greek Royalty R1b - George I (1845-1913) R1b - Constantine I (1868-1923) R1b - Alexander (1893-1920) R1b - George II (1890-1947) Romanian Royalty Bulgarian Royalty R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Ferdinand I (1861-1948) R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Boris III (1894-1943) R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Simeon II (b. 1937) Polish Royalty J2b2a1a1a1b - 

House of Lubomirski House of Grimaldi I1a1b1a1e2 - Jacques I, Prince of Monaco (1689-1751) I1a1b1a1e2 - Honoré III (1720-1795) I1a1b1a1e2 - Honoré IV (1758-1819) I1a1b1a1e2 - Florestan I (1785-1856) I1a1b1a1e2 - Charles III (1818-1889) I1a1b1a1e2 - Albert I (1848-1922) I1a1b1a1e2 - Louis II (1870-1949) Portuguese Royalty R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Pedro V (1837-1861) R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Luis I (1838-1889) R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Carlos I (1863-1908) R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Manuel II (1889-1932) Spanish Royalty Sardinian Royalty Dukes of Parma R1b1b2a1a1b - 

House of Bourbon-Parma Italian Royalty Grand Duke of Tuscany French Royalty R1b1b2a1a1b - Francis I (1494-1547) R1b1b2a1a1b - Henry IV (1553-1610) R1b1b2a1a1b - Louis XIII (1601-1643) R1b1b2a1a1b -

 Louis, Dauphin of France (1661-1711) R1b1b2a1a1b - Louis XV (1710-1774) R1b1b2a1a1b - Louis XVI (1754-1793) R1b1b2a1a1b - Louis XVII (1785-1795) R1b1b2a1a1b - Louis XVIII of France (1755-1824) R1b1b2a1a1b - Charles X of France (1757-1836) G2a - Louis XVI Relic G2a - Henri IV Relic Belgian Royalty R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Leopold I (1790-1865) R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Leopold II (1835-1909) R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Albert I (1875-1934) R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Leopold III (1901-1983) R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Baldwin I (1930-1993) R1b1a1b1a1a1a - Albert II (1934-) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a6c - House of Reginarids R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a6c - Counts of Hainaut R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a6c - Counts of Louvain and Brussels R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a6c - Dukes of Brabant and Lothier R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a6c - House of Hesse Grand Duke of Luxembourg Stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland Kings of Saxony Prussian Royalty Bohemian Royalty Arpad Dynasty R1a1a1b2a2a - Bela III R1a1a1b2a2a - Emeric R1a1a1b2a2a - Ladislaus III R1a1a1b2a2a - Andrew II R1a1a1b2a2a - Bela IV R1a1a1b2a2a - Stephen V R1a1a1b2a2a - Ladislaus IV R1a1a1b2a2a - Andrew, Duke of Slavonia Bavarian Royalty German Royalty I2a1b1a2a1b - House of Hohenzollern I2a1b1a2a1b -

 Dukes of Prussia (1525-1701) I2a1b1a2a1b - Kings of Prussia (1701-1918) I2a1b1a2a1b - Frederick William I2a1b1a2a1b - Frederick I I2a1b1a2a1b - Frederick William I I2a1b1a2a1b - German Emperors (1871-1918) I2a1b1a2a1b - William I I2a1b1a2a1b - Frederick III I2a1b1a2a1b - William II R1b1a1b1a1a1c1a1 - House of Wettin Holy Roman Empire Austrian Royalty R1b1a1b1a1a2b1 - Habsburg Family R1b - Leopold I, Margrave of Austria (died 994) R1b - Henry I, Margrave of Austria (died 1018) R1b - Adalbert, Margrave of Austria (985-1055) R1b - Ernest, Margrave of Austria (1027-1075) R1b - Leopold II, Margrave of Austria (1050-1095) R1b - Leopold III, Margrave of Austria (1073-1136) R1b - Leopold IV, Margrave of Austria, aka Leopold I, Duke of Bavaria (1108-1141) R1b - Henry II, Duke of Austria, aka Henry XI, also Duke of Bavaria (1107-1177) R1b - Leopold V, Duke of Austria (1157-1194) R1b - Frederick I, Duke of Austria (1175-1198) R1b - Leopold VI, Duke of Austria (1176-1230) R1b - Frederick II, Duke of Austria (1211-1246) Swedish Royalty I1 - Valdemar I of Sweden (1239-1302) I1 - Magnus III of Sweden (1240-1290) I1 - Birger I of Sweden (1280-1321) I1 - Valdemar, Duke of Finland (1280s-1318) I1 - Magnus IV of Sweden (1316-1374) I1 - Eric XII of Sweden (1339-1359) I1 - Haakon VI of Sweden & Norway (1340-1380) R1b - Christian I (1426-1481) R1b - John (1455-1513) R1b - Christian II (1481-1559) G2a2b2a1a1b1a1a2a1b2a1 - Gamla Olof Heresson Bure Norwegian Royalty I1 -

 Haakon VI of Sweden & Norway (1340-1380) R1b - Haakon VII (1872-1957) R1b - Olav V (1903-1991) R1b - Harald V (1937-) Danish Royalty I1 - Olaf II of Denmark & Norway (1370-1387) R1b - Christian I (1426-1481) R1b - John (1455-1513) R1b - Christian II (1481-1559) R1b - Frederick I R1b - Christian III R1b - Frederick II R1b - Christian IV R1b - Frederick III R1b - Christian V R1b - Frederick IV R1b - Christian VI R1b - Frederick V R1b - Christian VII R1b - Frederick VI R1b - Christian VIII R1b - Frederick VII R1b - Christian IX (1818-1906) R1b - Frederick VIII (1843-1912) R1b - Christian X (1870-1947) R1b - Frederick IX (1899-1972) Scottish Royalty R1b1a1b1a1a2c - Robert II R1b1a1b1a1a2c - Robert III R1b1a1b1a1a2c - James I R1b1a1b1a1a2c - James II R1b1a1b1a1a2c - James III R1b1a1b1a1a2c - James IV R1b1a1b1a1a2c - James V J2a1 - Earl of Eglinton (1460-1545) R1a1a1b1a3a1a1a -

 Somerled of Argyll (1100-1164) Clan MacKintosh I2a1b1a2b1a2a3b1a1 - Shaw MacDuff (1160) Clan Douglas E1b1b1a1b1a10b - Alexander Douglas (1625) Clan McNab R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1a1a1a1 - Fergus Mac Echdach (778) Clan Comyn R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4b2c1 - Richard Comyn (1115-1179) Clan Abercrombie R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1e - Robert Abercromby (1534) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1e - Sir Ralph Abercromby (1734-1801) Clan Abernathy R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a - Orm de Abernethy (1170) Clan Agnew I2a1b1a1a1a1a1b3 - Alastair (1299) Clan Ainslie R1a1a1b1a1a1c1e - Thomas de Aneslei (1221) Clan Bayne R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1h1 - Donald Mackay (1370) Clan Baird R1a1a1b1a3a1a - Richard Baird (1390) Clan Barron R1b1a1b1a1a1c1a2b - Bonaventure Baron (1610-1696) Clan Hamilton I1a2a1a1a4 - Walter fitz Gilbert of Hambledon I1a2a1a1a4 - Laird of Cadzow (1315) I1a2a1a1a4 - Lord Hamilton (1445) I1a2a1a1a4 - Earl of Arran (1503) I1a2a1a1a4 - Marquess of Hamilton (1599) I1a2a1a1a4 - Duke of Hamilton (1643) Clan Lindsay I2a1a1b1a1b2 - Sir Walter de Lindissie I2a1a1b1a1b2 - Earl of Crawford (1398-present) I2a1a1b1a1b2 - Earl of Lindsay (1633-present) I2a1a1b1a1b2 - Earl of Balcarres (1651-present) Clan Graham J1a1b1b1a2a1a1a1a - Clan Graham Clan MacDonald R1a1a1b1a3a - Clan MacDonald Clan Home R1a1a1b1a3a1a1 - Cospatric I Anglo-Danish Earl of Northumbria (1073) R1a1a1b1a3a1a1 - Earl of Home (1605-present) Clan Gordon R1b1a1b1a1a1e1b - Alexander Seton (1408) R1b1a1b1a1a1e1b - Alexaneder Gordon 1st Earl of Huntly (1470) R1b1a1b1a1a1e1b - Marquesses of Huntly (1599-present) R1b1a1b1a1a1e1b - Dukes of Gordon (1684-1836) R1b1a1b1a1a1e1b - 

Earls of Aberdeen (1682) R1b1a1b1a1a1e1b - 

Marquesses of Aberdeen and Temair (1916-present) Clan Swinton R1a1a1b1a3a1a1 - Ernulf de Swinton (1136) Clan Spence R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4a - Thomas de Spens (1296) Clan Skene R1b1a1b1a1a1e2a - John de Skeen (1093) R1b1a1b1a1a1e2a - Robert Skene (1317) Clan Paden R1b1a1b1a1a1c2c1 - Hugh Pethin (1611) Clan Nesbitt R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a5b1a1 - Alexander Nisbet (1657-1725) Clan Menzies R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a6 - Sir Robert de Myneris (1237) Clan Napier R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1e1 - Sir Archibald Napier of Merchiston (1625) Clan Moffat R1b1a1b1a1a1c2b2a1b1a1a1 - Nicholas de Moffat (1286) Clan Grant R1b1a1b1a1a2e1 - Duncan Grant of Freuchie (1413-1485) R1b1a1b1a1a2e1 - Earls of Seafield (1701-present) R1b1a1b1a1a2e1 - Barons Strathspey (1858-present) Clan Bruce R1b1a2a1a2a - Robert the Bruce R1b1a2a1a2a - David II of Scotland R1b1a2a1a2a - Edward Bruce R1b1a2a1a2a - Lords of Annandale (1124) R1b1a2a1a2a - Barons of Clackmannan R1b1a2a1a2a - Lords Bruce of Kinloss (1608) R1b1a2a1a2a - Earls of Elgin (1633) R1b1a2a1a2a - Earls of Kincardine (1647) Clan Sutherland R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Freskin of Flanders R1b1a1b1a1a2a - William de Moravia (1210-1248) R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Earl of Tullibardine (1606) R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Earl of Atholl (1629) R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Marquess of Atholl (1676) R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Duke of Atholl (1703) 

Clan Campbell R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1c1 - Lord Campbell (1445) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1c1 - Earl of Argyll (1457) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1c1 - Marquess of Argyll (1641) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1c1 - Duke of Argyll (1701-present) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1c1 - Earls of Loudoun (1633-1786) Clan Drummond R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2a1e - Lord Drummond of Cargill (1488) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2a1e - Earl of Perth (1605-present) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2a1e - Duke of Perth (1716-1800) Clan MacPherson R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a3a - Clan MacPherson Clan Lyon I1a1b1a1d - John Lyon Lord of Glamis (1340-1382) I1a1b1a1d - Lord Glamis (1445) I1a1b1a1d - Earls of Kinghorne (1606) I1a1b1a1d - Earls of Srathmore and Kinghorne (1677-present) I1a1b1a1d - Claude Bowes-Lyon Clan Munro I2a1a2a1b1a2b - Munros of Foulis I2a1a2a1b1a2b - James Monroe (1758-1831) Clan Montgomery J2a1a2b2a2b2a2b - Alexander Montgomerie 1st Lord Montgomerie (1470) J2a1a2b2a2b2a2b - Earl of Eglinton (1508-present) J2a1a2b2a2b2a2b - Earl of Winton (1859-present) Clan MacDougall R1a1a1b1a3a1a1a - Clan MacDougall Clan Cochrane R1a1a1b1a3a1b3c1b - Waldenus De Cochrane (1240-1300) R1a1a1b1a3a1b3c1b - Earl of Dundonald (1669-present) Clan Sinclair R1b1a1b1a1a1c2b2a1b1a4b2a2c1a1 - Earl of Orkney (1739-1479) R1b1a1b1a1a1c2b2a1b1a4b2a2c1a1 - Earl of Caithness (1455-present)

 Clan Erskine R1b1a1b1a1a2b2 - John Erskine 19th Earl of Mar (1558-1634) Clan Boyle R1b1a1b1a1a2a1b1a1 - Earls of Glasgow Clan Murray R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Freskin of Flanders R1b1a1b1a1a2a - William de Moravia (1210-1248) R1b1a1b1a1a2a - 

Earl of Tullibardine (1606) R1b1a1b1a1a2a - 

Earl of Atholl (1629) R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Marquess of Atholl (1676) R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Duke of Atholl (1703) Clan Cameron R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4d1 - Cameron of Lochiel R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a4d1 - Donal Dubh Clan Mackenzie R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2d - Kenneth Mackenzie 1st of Kintail (1304) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2d - Earl of Seaforth (1623-1781) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2d - Earl of Cromartie (1703-1746) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2d - Alexander Mackenzie of Kintail Clan Macbean R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1a - Gilles MacBean (1746) Clan Barclay I2a1a1a1a1a1a1 - Barclay de Tolly I2a1a1a1a1a1a1 - Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly (1761-1818)

 Clan Boyd R1b1a1b1a1a1c2a1c2 - Lord Boyd (1454) R1b1a1b1a1a1c2a1c2 - Earl of Kilmarnock (1661-1746) Clan Armstrong R1b1a1b1a1a2 - Lowland Scottish Clan Armstrong R1b1a1b1a1a2 - Neil Armstrong Clan MacLaren R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1a1 - Highland Scottish Clan MacLaren Clan Buchanan R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1 - Anselan O Kyan King of North Ulster (1016) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1 - Sir Alexander Buchanan (1424) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1 - Sir George Buchanan (1650) Clan MacGregor R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1 - Rob Roy MacGregor (1671-1734) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a1f1 - Baronet MacGregor of MacGregor (1795-present) Clan MacLean R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2a1b1 - Gillean of the Battle Axe (1263) R1b1a1b1a1a2c1a2a2a1b1 - Lachlan Lubanach Maclean (1325-1405) Clan Colquhoun E1b1b1a1b1a14a - John Calhoun (1782-1850) Clan Stirling I1a2a1a1a2a1 - Thoraldus de Strivelyn (1147) I1a2a1a1a2a1 - Alexander de Strivelyn Laird of Cadder (1304) I1a2a1a1a2a1 - Sir John de Strivelyn (1333) Clan Donnachaidh R1b1a1b1a1a2b - Donnachaidh Reamhar (1306) R1b1a1b1a1a2b - Robert Riabhach Duncanson (1406) R1b1a1b1a1a2b - Alexander Robertson (1645) Clan Cathcart R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Rainaldus de Kethcart (1178) R1b1a1b1a1a2a - William de Cathcart (1296) R1b1a1b1a1a2a - Alan Cathcart 4th Lord Cathcart (1568) Clan Kirkpatrick E1b1b1a1b1a14a - Sir Roger Kirkpatrick (1357) Clan Carruthers I1a1b1b - Nigel de Karruthers (1380) I1a1b1b - Sir Simon Carruthers (1548) Clan Galbraith R1b1a1b1a1a1c2b1b - Gilchrist Bretnach R1b1a1b1a1a1c2b1b - Sir William Galbraith of Buthernock (1255) 

English Royalty G2 - Richard III (1452-1485) R1b1a1b1a1a2c - James I (1566-1625) R1b1a1b1a1a2c - Charles I (1600-1649) R1b1a1b1a1a2c - Charles II (1630-1685) R1b1a1b1a1a2c - James II (1633-1701) R1b1a1b1a1a1c1a1 - Edward VII (1841-1910) R1b1a1b1a1a1c1a1 - George V (1865-1936) R1b1a1b1a1a1c1a1 - Edward VIII (1894-1972) R1b1a1b1a1a1c1a1 - George VI (1895-1952) R1b - Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh R1b - Charles, Prince of Wales R1b - Prince William, Duke of Cambridge I2a1b1a1a1b - House of Clinton I2a1b1a1a1b - Sir John de Clinton 1st Baron Clinton I2a1b1a1a1b - Earls of Lincoln (1572-present) I2a1b1a1a1b - Dukes of Newcastle-under-Lyne (1768-1988) I2a1b1a1a1b - Sir Henry Clinton (1730-1795) 

Ancient Egypt E1b1a - Ramesses III (1217 BC-1155 BC) Persian Royalty J1 - Fath Ali Shah Qajar (1772-1834) 

Chinese Royalty C-M401 - Nurhaci, Qing dynasty (1559-1626) Saudi Royalty J1-FGC2 - Muhammad bin Saud (1744-1818) Famous People D1b1a2b1a1 - Emperor Higashiyama O2a2b1a1a1c - Hata Clan Japan E1b1b1b2a1a - Napoleon I (1769-1821) I2a2a - Napoleon III E1b1a - Nelson Mandela E1b1b1 - Lyndon B Johnson E1b1b1 - Adolf Hitler E1b1b1 - David Attenborough E1b1b1 - Richard Attenborough E1b1b1a2 - Orville Wright E1b1b1a2 - Wilbur Wright E1b1b1a2 - Albert Einstein G2a1 - Joseph Stalin I1 - Leo Tolstoy I1 - Warren Buffett I1 - Alexander Hamilton I1 - Calvin Coolidge I1 - Bill Clinton I1 - Sting I2a1a2b - Martin Luther I2a1a2b - Novak Djokovic I2a1a2a1b1a2b - James Monroe I2a1b1a1a1b - Bill Gates R1a1a1b1a1a1c1 - Nikola Tesla I2a1b1a2b1 - John Tyler I2a1b1a2b1a2 - Davy Crockett I2a1b1a2b1a3a1a1a - Andrew Johnson I2a1b1a2b1a2a1a1a1a1a2 - Chuck Norris I2a1b1a2b1a2a1a1a1a3a1 - Steven King I2a2a1b1b1a1a1 - Elvis Presley I2a2a1 - Duke of Hamilton I2a2a1 - Henry Luce I2a2b - Myles Standish I2a2b - Paul Reynaud R1a1a1b1a2 - Max von Sydow J2a1a1a2b2a2b3a - Rothschild Family J2a1a1b2a1a - Prime Minister John Curtin R1a1a1a1d2b3 - Sir Francis Drake R1a1 - Tom Hanks R1b1a1b1a1a2b1 - George Washington R1b1a1b1a1a2b1c1b - Abraham Lincoln R1b - John Adams R1b - John Quincy Adams R1b - Ulysses S Grant R1b - William McKinley R1b - Woodrow Wilson R1b - Che Guevara R1b - Charles Darwin

To Tacitus, who wrote a biography of his father-in-law, the Roman governor of Britain from AD 77 to 84, Agricola, the whole of Britain north of the Forth-Clyde isthmus was “Caledonia”. However, Tacitus never calls the inhabitants of the country Caledonians, only “Britons”. The geographer Ptolemy, writing in the mid-2nd century (but apparently using data gleaned during Agricola’s tenure), lists the Caledonians (Caledonii) as just one of several tribes living beyond the isthmus. So, although the whole country was called Caledonia, the Caledonians were but one tribe inhabiting that country. (See British Tribes: Caledonia.)

Cassius Dio, discussing events in northern Britain during the period 197–211, notes:

There are two principal races of the Britons, the Caledonians and the Maeatae, and the names of the others have been merged in these two. The Maeatae live next to the cross-wall which cuts the island in half, and the Caledonians are beyond them.Roman History (Epitome, Xiphilinus) LXXVI, 12

It is generally believed that Dio’s “cross-wall” is the Antonine Wall (on the Forth-Clyde line), in which case, the tribes of Caledonia had amalgamated to produce two major groups: the Maeatae, to the immediate north of the Wall, and to the north of them the Caledonians. (See The Caledonian Campaigns of Septimius Severus.)

Almost a century later, in a panegyric delivered in 297, appears the earliest extant mention of the Picts. The anonymous author makes a poetic reference to Julius Caesar having had a relatively easy task invading Britain, since his opponents were:

… an uncivilised nation and accustomed to no enemies except the Picts [Picti] and the Irish [Hiberni], still half-naked …Panegyrici Latini ‘VIII. Panegyric on Constantius Caesar’ §11

A little later, in 310, another panegyric, also anonymous, refers to the:

… forests and marshes of the Caledonians [Caledones] and other Picts[*]…Panegyrici Latini ‘VI. Panegyric on Constantine’ §7

Appended to the Verona List – a list of Roman provinces, dating from about 314 (it survives in a 7th-century manuscript at Verona) – is a catalogue of forty “barbarian peoples that have sprung-up under the emperors”, which begins with the Scots, the Picts and the Caledonians. This is apparently the earliest historical reference to the Scots (Scoti or Scotti), and also the last reference to the Caledonians.

Ammianus Marcellinus, writing about the, so-called, Barbarian Conspiracy of 367:

… at that time the Picts, divided into two tribes, called Dicalydones and Verturiones, as well as the Attacotti, a warlike race of men, and the Scots, were ranging widely and causing great devastation …Res Gestae XXVII, 8

Presumably the Caledonians (Caledonii/Caledones) had evolved into the Dicalydones – the similarity of name is clear – and the Maeatae had metamorphosed into the Verturiones. It would seem, then, that by the early-4th century all the tribes beyond the Forth-Clyde line had come to be known, collectively, as Picti by the Romans. Scoti also seems to be a new name for an old foe – in this instance Irish raiders. The ‘Panegyric on Constantius Caesar’ of 297 linked the Picts with the Hiberni, but thereafter they are always linked with the Scoti. The poet Claudian (Claudius Claudianus), writing in 398, confirms that the Scots are indeed Irish:

… ice-bound Hibernia [Ireland] wept for the heaps of slain Scots.Panegyricus de Quarto Consulatu Honorii Augusti, line 33
(Panegyric on the Fourth Consulship of Honorius)

The etymology of the word Scoti is uncertain – it does not have a Latin root, nor has any proposed Goidelic derivation gained wide acceptance. According to one legend the Scots were named from, Pharaoh’s daughter, Scota – wife of the man who led their forebears from Egypt at the time of Moses.

The origins of the name Pict has been much debated (along with many other aspects of the Picts, who thrived for over five hundred years but about whom remarkably little is known). What they called themselves is not known – the Picts left no literature – but the Latin word Picti would appear to mean ‘painted people’ (pictus = ‘painted’, hence the English word ‘picture’).

Septimius Severus arrived in Britain, to campaign against the tribes of Caledonia (the Maeatae and the Caledonians), in 208. Herodian, a contemporary of Severus, writes:

Most of the regions of [northern] Britain are marshy, since they are flooded continually by the tides of the ocean; the barbarians are accustomed to swimming or wading through these waist-deep marsh pools; since they go about naked, they are unconcerned about muddying their bodies. Strangers to clothing, they wear ornaments of iron at their waists and throats; considering iron a symbol of wealth, they value this metal as other barbarians value gold. They tattoo their bodies with coloured designs and drawings of all kinds of animals; for this reason they do not wear clothes, which would conceal the decorations on their bodies. Extremely savage and warlike, they are armed only with a spear and a narrow shield, plus a sword that hangs suspended by a belt from their otherwise naked bodies. They do not use breastplates or helmets, considering them encumbrances in crossing the marshes.History of the Empire after Marcus III, 14

Almost a century after Severus’ campaigns, the name Pict first appears (297). Another century onwards, in 400, the poet Claudian talks of Britain (in female personification) being:

… clothed in the skin of some Caledonian beast, her cheeks tattooed, and an azure cloak, rivalling the swell of Ocean, sweeping to her feet …De Consulatu Stilichonis II, lines 247–249
(On the Consulship of Stilicho)

And, in 402, of:

… the strange devices tattooed on dying Picts.De Bello Gothico, lines 417–418
(On the Gothic War)

And he had, in 396, referred to:

… the well-named Picts …Panegyricus de Tertio Consulatu Honorii Augusti, line 54
(Panegyric on the Third Consulship of Honorius)

Possibly, then, it was their tendency to decorate themselves with extravagant body-art that caused the Romans to nickname the inhabitants of northernmost Britain Picti: ‘painted people’. On the other hand, maybe the association of tattooing with these British “barbarians” was based not on reality, but on a stereotyped notion of those distant savages. In other words, perhaps it was a myth that the Picts tattooed their bodies. The British cleric Gildas, writing in about 545(?), likens “the terrible hordes of Scots and Picts” to “dark swarms of worms”, and says of them:

Differing partly in their habits, yet alike in one and the same thirst for bloodshed – in a preference also for covering their villainous faces with hair rather than their nakedness of body with decent clothing …De Excidio Britanniae §19

It is difficult to believe that Gildas would have passed-up the opportunity to make disparaging remarks about tattoos if the Picts were particularly noted for them. Perhaps Picti was simply a Latinization of their native name (which could have had a completely different meaning). Nevertheless, the Spanish bishop and encyclopaedist, Isidore of Seville, in the early-600s, wrote:

Some nations lay claim to distinguishing marks not only in clothing but also on their bodies: as we see the curly hair of the Germans; the whiskers and red pigment of the Goths; the tattoos of the Britons. The Jews cut around their foreskin; the Arabs bore holes in their ears; the Getae have yellow hair which they do not cover; the Albanians are resplendent with white hair. Black night possesses the bodies of the Moors; the Gauls have white skin; without horses the Alans are idle. The race of the Picts is not absent from this list, for their name is from their body, which an artisan abuses with tiny needle pricks and the juice of native grass, so it bears things which look like scars – their nobility is spotted with painted limbs.[*]Etymologiae (or Origines) XIX, 23.7

The image of the highly-decorated, naked, Pict still seems to be stuck in the public imagination. Whatever its derivation, it is apparent that Picti was a new collective name for the disparate tribes already living beyond the Forth-Clyde isthmus. According to the mythology that developed, however, the Picts were a migrant race of people who eventually settled in Britain. In the 8th century, the Anglo-Saxon monk and historian, Bede, wrote:

… at first this island had no other inhabitants but the Britons, from whom it derived its name, and who, coming over into Britain, as is reported, from Armorica, possessed themselves of the southern parts thereof. Starting from the south, they had occupied the greater part of the island, when it happened, that the nation of the Picts, putting to sea from Scythia, as is reported, in a few ships of war, and being driven by the winds beyond the bounds of Britain, came to Ireland and landed on its northern shores. There, finding the nation of the Scots, they begged to be allowed to settle among them … The Scots answered that the island could not contain them both; but “We can give you good counsel,” said they, “whereby you may know what to do; we know there is another island, not far from ours, to the eastward, which we often see at a distance, when the days are clear. If you will go thither, you can obtain settlements; or, if any should oppose you, we will help you.” The Picts, accordingly, sailing over into Britain, began to inhabit the northern parts thereof, for the Britons had possessed themselves of the southern. Now the Picts had no wives, and asked them of the Scots; who would not consent to grant them upon any other terms, than that when any question should arise, they should choose a king from the female royal race rather than from the male: which custom, as is well known, has been observed among the Picts to this day.Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum I, 

Translations:
Claudian by Maurice Platnauer
Cassius Dio Roman History by Earnest Cary
Jerome Adversus Jovinianum by Philip Rance
Gildas De Excidio Britanniae by Hugh Williams
Julius Caesar The Gallic War by T. Rice Holmes
Isidore of Seville Etymologiae by Priscilla Throop
Ammianus Marcellinus Res Gestae by John C. Rolfe
Bede Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum by A.M. Sellar
Herodian History of the Empire after Marcus by Edward C. Echols.

http://www.dot-domesday.me.uk/picts.htm?fbclid=IwAR0KIeSxkkYcE6qNhtKvLknZ7J9n2Zhl_hEbSkYn2BJunwsfwYS0VkxwQXs

Further infomation regarding Pict DNA. Which seems to be R1B.

 3% of Irish men hold pictish Dna, r1b. Adding this to the website...so let's date back from there...who were the ancestors of the picts ? 

Three percent of men in Northern Ireland and roughly one in 200 men in Ireland carry the DNA  ScotlandDNA, an ancestry testing company, discovered a DNA marker that strongly suggests that ten percent of Scotsmen are directly descended from the Picts, the Gaels’ fierce neighbors who battled the Romans.  The company’s chief scientist, Dr. Jim Wilson, found a Y chromosome marker among direct descendants of the Picts in 2013. The Scotsman.com reported he said this marker is the “first evidence that the heirs of the Picts are living among us.” The marker is labeled R1b-S530.   Read More: DNA tests reunite abandoned brother and sister caught in Northern Ireland divide  ScotlandDNA’s managing director Alistair Moffat said about the discovery, “These findings were probably one of the biggest surprises we’ve had in our research. The Picts seem kind of exotic, and different and quite colorful and so I was personally, really, really rather taken with this.”  Dr. Wilson tested this marker in more than 3,000 British and Irish men and he found it was 10 times more common in those with Scottish grandfathers than with English grandfathers. 170 Scottish men have been found to carry this marker, though the real number is likely higher. More than 10 percent of 100 Scotsmen tested carried R1b-S530. He said, “As you go up your family tree, there are all sorts of paths. But if we can see that about 10 percent of father-lines look to have a Pictish origin, then we can make the prediction that probably a lot of other lines do too.”  ADVERTISING   Only 0.8 of English men carry this marker and about 3 percent of men in Northern Ireland carry it. The presence in Northern Ireland may be due to the Scottish plantation in the 16 and 17 centuries. Only 1 of 200 men carried the marker in the Republic of Ireland.  Dr. Wilson commented on these differences, “The finding just popped out of the analysis. While there have been hints of this from previous data, what was surprising was the really huge difference between Scotland and England.”   Read More: Irish people have far more Viking DNA than was suspected  Dr. Wilson is also a senior lecturer in population and disease genetics at the University of Edinburgh. He said, “It is a clear sign that while people do move around there remains a core who have remained at home. Perhaps this was due to farming or that moving around would have to be done on foot.”  The Picts were a group of tribes living in the Forth and Clyde beyond the reach of the Romans. They lived near the Britons, Gaels, Angeles, and the Vikings. The Romans called them the “Picti” which means “the painted ones.” They were first mentioned by a Roman chronicler in 300 AD. They fought with the Romans and the Angles and the Picts had overrun the northern frontier of the Roman empire on several occasions by the late 200’s. Previously thought to have “disappeared,” scholars now believe they became assimilated by invading Scots from Ireland.

https://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/northern-ireland-pict-dna?fbclid=IwAR0KwEJoBmSI5v9SQGOpAhME9F-_CQLkqvWUrAhcL6D9e0_HhnQE33fLAY8

26th April 2020 The Picts: who really were our mythical ancestors? By Neil Mackay  @neilmackay .

Scientists and archaeologists were making huge leaps forward in the understanding of our ancient ancestors before the lockdown began. Here, Writer at Large Neil Mackay, uncovers what we know today about the mysterious and very misunderstood Picts WE think of the Picts as an almost mythological people – mystical, mysterious, barbarian and pagan – lost to us in the mists of time. But nothing could be further from the truth. Before the coronavirus lockdown began, archaeologists were making rapid advances in our understanding of these ancient ancestors. A standing stone carved by Pictish hands some 1,200 years ago was recently discovered near Dingwall, shedding new light on their art and culture. A 1,400-year-old Pictish cemetery was located on the Black Isle, giving us an insight into their religious beliefs and social rituals. In recent years, scholars have been revolutionising how history views the Picts – a people who, until the 1950s, were seen as a subject too fanciful for serious academic study. So who really were the Picts? The broad answer is that they were the inhabitants of Scotland long before the idea of Scotland even existed. They withstood the Roman occupation of Britain, maintaining their own distinct culture while other cultures were subsumed by the Empire. By the Dark Ages, the Picts emerged as a culture just as sophisticated as any other on the British isles at the time. The Picts helped shape modern Britain – and without them Scotland wouldn’t exist. Nor were they stubbornly pagan – they embraced Christianity. Their greatest failing, though, is that they left us no written records beyond the strange hieroglyphics carved onto their standing stones. We still don’t understand what these symbols mean. Other contemporary cultures, however, like the Irish Gaels and the Anglo-Saxons, left plenty of written records. So the void in our understanding of the Picts was filled with either accounts by their neighbours and their enemies, or myths and legends. And so, a faulty understanding of the Picts has existed right up to the present day. Origin story The ancestors of the Picts were the tribes who lived in the north of Scotland, beyond the River Tay. In the first century AD, the Romans called these people Britanni, today we think of them as the Caledonii or Caledonians. These Caledonians defended their land with guerrilla attacks against the legions of Rome. Roman chroniclers such as Tacitus tell us that these tribes forged alliances against Rome – and finally took on the might of the Empire in a huge set piece battle at Mons Graupius in 83AD. The exact location of the battle is unknown but it was probably in Aberdeenshire and gave rise to the name of the Grampian Mountains. The battle was a defeat for the Caledonians but at least two-thirds of their army survived. Resistance, weather, and landscape all made it impossible for Rome to complete its conquest of the entire island of Britain. The north remained free, and the Caledonian ancestors of the Picts continued their hit-and-run campaign against Roman forces.

https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/18406153.picts-really-mythical-ancestors/?fbclid=IwAR1KMlLW6pqXz8Qxqf5CqnfpWHPxGvZUw4m-pKNAMF1v_2m-ZSoa_N3RH2w

TREE OF LIFE THE DNA BRIDGE: Paternal & Mitochondrial Dragon DNA explains the importance of the female decent. Mitochondrial DNA is passed only through the female line. Mitochondria is a living sentient and separate life form from ourselves. The mitochondria are dependent on us for life; we live in a symbiotic relationship. Mitochondrial DNA can live 15 generations. 15 generations of living mitochondria live inside you. Your 15 generation grandparents living cells are in you. A mutant mtDNA will drift to fixation in a human matriline in 15 generations. Recently an attempt was made to estimate the age of the human race using mitochondrial DNA. https://drakenberg.weebly.com/dragon-family-tree.html iona millers site on behalf on myself and dad, Nicholas Devere This material is inherited always from mother to children only. By measuring the difference in mitochondrial DNA among many individuals, the age of the common maternal ancestor of humanity was estimated at about 200,000 years. It remains implausible to explain the known geographic distribution of mtDNA sequence variation by human migration that occurred only in the last ~6,500 years. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (by virtue of its maternal, nonrecombining mode of inheritance, rapid pace of evolution, and extensive intraspecific polymorphism) permits and even demands an extension of phylogenetic thinking to the microevolutionary level. Many species exhibit a deep and geographically structured mtDNA phylogenetic history. Study of the relationship between genealogy and geography constitutes a discipline that can be termed intraspecific phylogeography.  ’alien genes’ in human DNA The (Central Asian) Khazar name is derived from Turkic *qaz-, meaning "to wander." The Ashina was considered a sacred clan of quasi-divine status. Q1 actually refers to the subclade Q-P36.2.  The Ashina clan, a noble caste, carry the 16q24.3 "red gene" inherited from the Sumerian Annunaki, the root of the Dragon seed that permeates royal lines: Merovingian, Carolingian, Tudor, Plantagenet, Stuart, Hapsburg, Hanoverian, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Guelph, Bowes-Lyon, Battenberg (Mountbatten), Guise, and Savoy families - and Transylvanian lineages. The Davidic House of Judah married into the descent of the Merovingian Kings of the Franks. They are connected by a shared bloodline. The dragon archetype rests within the Dragon blood, passed on through the genes. According to Nicholas de Vere, "Briefly, the Dragon lineage starts in the Caucasus with the Annunaki, descending through migrating proto-Scythians to the Sumerians while branching off also into the early Egyptians, Phoenicians and Mittani. A marriage bridge back to Scythia infused the Elvin line of “Tuatha de Danaan” and the Fir Bolg, which branched into the Arch-Druidic, Priest-Princely family to the Royal Picts of Scotland and the ring kings of the Horse Lords of Dal Riada, through the Elven dynasty of Pendragon and Avallon del Acqs, and down to a few pure bred families today." The Royal Court of the Dragon was founded by the priests of Mendes in about 2200 BC and was subsequently ratified by the 12th dynasty Queen Sobeknefru. This sovereign and priestly Order passed from Egypt to the Kings of Jerusalem; to the Black Sea Princes of Scythia (Princess Milouziana of the Scythians) and into the Balkans - notably to the Royal House of Hungary, whose King Sigismund reconstituted the Court just 600 years ago. Sigismund’s assumed descent from Melusine. Her ancestry actually can be traced back to the Scythian Dragon Princess Scota, Queen Sobekh Nefru and the Egyptian Cult of the Dragon. Vlad Dracul was a minion of Sigismund of Luxembourg, and was educated at the Emperor's court in Nuremberg. Dracul was invested into Societas Draconis. The Byzantine Emperor Constantine was a Dragon King. The Byzantine emperor Leo III married his son Constantine (V) to the Khazar princess as part of the alliance between the two empires. Princess Tzitzak was baptized as Irene. Their son Leo (Leo IV) was known as "Leo the Khazar", emperor of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire from 775 to 780. The re-expansion of paternal group R1b and maternal group H from the Basque Ice Age refuge spread up the coasts of all the countries facing the Atlantic, after the ice melted. The British Isles retained higher rates than the other countries, for several reasons related specifically to early movements directly from the Basque country rather than from general diffusion from western Europe. First, as a result of lower sea levels, the British Isles, in particular Ireland, were connected and at the furthest edge of the extended Ice Age European continent, and thus received the bulk of early coastal migration. Then, as sea levels rose, first Ireland then Britain became islands, relatively insulated from further migration from elsewhere in Europe, thus preserving their high rates of R1b and similarity to the initial settlements. The means by which I could separate the R1b types in the British Isles from those on the other side of the channel is by the use of “Founder Analysis.” That is, looking at the detail of their gene types (so-called STR haplotypes). 

These revealed 21 founding clusters, which could only have arrived direct from the Basque country. Their descendant twigs are unique to the British Isles. Rb1 - http://www.familytreedna.com/public/r1b1b2/default.aspx Royal Red Dragons - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OnYpMcaHCFI&feature=related King Tut was a Celt - http://wn.com/King_Tut_was_a_Celt

PLoS One. 2015; 10(6): e0128810.

Published online 2015 Jun 8. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128810

 Abstract

The importance of the process of Neolithization for the genetic make-up of European populations has been hotly debated, with shifting hypotheses from a demic diffusion (DD) to a cultural diffusion (CD) model. In this regard, ancient DNA data from the Balkan Peninsula, which is an important source of information to assess the process of Neolithization in Europe, is however missing. In the present study we show genetic information on ancient populations of the South-East of Europe. We assessed mtDNA from ten sites from the current territory of Romania, spanning a time-period from the Early Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age. mtDNA data from Early Neolithic farmers of the Starčevo Criş culture in Romania (Cârcea, Gura Baciului and Negrileşti sites), confirm their genetic relationship with those of the LBK culture (Linienbandkeramik Kultur) in Central Europe, and they show little genetic continuity with modern European populations. On the other hand, populations of the Middle-Late Neolithic (Boian, Zau and Gumelniţa cultures), supposedly a second wave of Neolithic migration from Anatolia, had a much stronger effect on the genetic heritage of the European populations. In contrast, we find a smaller contribution of Late Bronze Age migrations to the genetic composition of Europeans. Based on these findings, we propose that permeation of mtDNA lineages from a second wave of Middle-Late Neolithic migration from North-West Anatolia into the Balkan Peninsula and Central Europe represent an important contribution to the genetic shift between Early and Late Neolithic populations in Europe, and consequently to the genetic make-up of modern European populations.

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The fundamental question of the relative contribution of Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers regarding the genetic heritage of present-day Europeans has been hotly debated. Three events are believed to have had a major impact in the present-day genetic variability of Europeans: the expansion of modern humans from Africa through the Middle-East some 46.000 years ago, the repopulation of Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum between 27.000 and 16.000 years ago, and the arrival of the Neolithic culture from Anatolia between 9.000 and 5.000 years ago [1].

The studies by Menozzi, Piazza and Cavalli-Sforza on classical genetic markers, more than three decades ago, described a South-East to North-West PC1 component that was interpreted as a demic diffusion of Neolithic farmers from the Middle East into Europe [2–3]. These data were however challenged by DNA analysis from present-day populations ([4–7] among others) and more recently by ancient DNA (aDNA) studies based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) [8–23]. aDNA studies of hunter-gatherers revealed a high genetic homogeneity in the pre-Neolithic groups throughout Europe, whether from Scandinavia [8–10], Central Europe [11] or the Iberian Peninsula [12–13]. The analysis of aDNA from Early European farmer groups of the Linear Pottery Culture (LPC, also known as Linienbandkeramik Kultur or LBK) in Central Europe suggested a genetic discontinuity in Central Europe and favored instead of a process of Neolithic transition through a demic diffusion model (DD) [14–15]: this view was based on a high frequency of the N1a haplogroup (about 15%) in the LBK farmers [15], absent in hunter-gatherers in this same region [11] and almost nonexistent (0.2%) in the present-day European populations [15]. On the other hand, these first farmers shared an affinity with the modern-day populations from the Near East and Anatolia, supporting a major genetic input from this area during the advent of farming in Europe [15]. Studies of other Neolithic sites in the North of France, Hungary and the Northeast of Iberian Peninsula also supported this view [16–18]. However, an ancient mtDNA study of a Neolithic site in the Mediterranean region of Europe, namely in the Iberian Peninsula, led to the proposal of a dual model for explaining the Neolithic dispersion process in Europe: DD in Mediterranean area and CD in Central Europe [19].

On the other hand, it has also been proposed that the mtDNA variability in the Cantabrian Fringe (nine archaeological sites of both Hunter-Gatherers and Farmers) is best explained by a model of random rather than clinal dispersal of Neolithic farmers in Europe, with different genetic influence in different geographical regions and in different periods of time [12]. In regard to Central Europe, a comprehensive study on mtDNA from archaeological sites spanning from the Early Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age identified four marked genetic shifts during the Neolithic period. This diachronic study reported a marked genetic shift between the Early/Middle and Late Neolithic populations, with a key role for Late Neolithic cultures in shaping the genetic diversity of modern central Europe genetic diversity [21]. How did this marked genetic shift between Early/Middle and Late Neolithic could occur in a relatively limited period of time is unclear.

Additionally, a recent mtDNA study on a sample of 15 Near Eastern farmers has revealed genetic affinities between these earlier farmer communities and modern populations from Cyprus and Crete, suggesting that the Neolithic was first introduced into Europe through pioneer seafaring colonization [22].

Finally, the study of the genomes of a 7,000-year-old farmer from Germany and eight ~8,000-year-old hunter-gatherers from Luxembourg and Sweden have shown that most present-day Europeans derive from at least three highly differentiated populations. Besides, authors have proposed that early European farmers had a ~44% ancestry from a ‘basal Eurasian’ population [23].

While much has been learned by the aforementioned studies, two crucial aspects have not been taken into consideration. Firstly, archaeological data show that the Neolithic expansion from Anatolia was not a single event but was represented by several waves of migrants [24]. In this respect the Proto-Sesklo culture in Greece, from which directly Starčevo-Criş in the North Balkans and indirectly LBK in Central Europe originate [25–26] represents only the first great wave of Neolithisation of Europe [27]. A later great wave of migration from North-West Anatolia led to important cultures of South-Eastern Europe such as Vinča and Boian cultures [28]. Secondly, there is a total absence of aDNA data from South-East Europe in the current models.

In the present study we have assessed the mtDNA variability from 63 individuals recovered from 10 archaeological sites in Romania spanning a period of five and a half millennia (c. 6300–1100 cal BC) between the Early Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age in Romania (Table 1, Fig 1). This is a strategic area of South-East Europe, from which different prehistoric human groups have passed and later spread throughout Europe. These sites encompass several major cultural events: i. the first Neolithic complex of the Gura Baciului- Cârcea group (also called Precriş culture) of Starčevo-Criș culture, which has the same origin in the Proto-Sesklo culture and it is partially contemporary with LBK culture in Central Europe; ii. the Boian, Zau and Gumelniţa cultures, that represent a continuum of a second migration in the Middle/Late Neolithic and Eneolithic, which has its origin in North-West Anatolia (Demircihoyuk) through East Bulgaria [28–29]; iii. the Eneolithic complex of Decea Mureşului, that represents a possible eastern migration [30–32]; and iv. the Early and Late Bronze Age complex of Floreşti-Polus, that represents new migratory movements most likely originating in the North steppes of the Black Sea [29]. The aim of the study is to shed light on the genetics of the different waves of migration of Neolithic and Bronze Age populations penetrating Europe from Anatolia and the steppes north of the Black Sea. We also assess the genetic impact of prehistoric events in the genetic composition of the present-day European populations.

Prehistoric samples from Romania analysed in the present study: Chronology, Cultural stages (also in Supporting Information S1 Table), Archaeological sites and Sample size (I.D.: Identification name; N analysed: Number of individuals analysed; N rep: number of individuals with reproducibility results).Chronology and cultureSiteI.D.N analysedN repEarly Neolithic (E_NEO) (6500–5500 BC) (Cârcea/Gura Baciului/Precriş Culture)Gura BaciuluiGB22NegrileştiNE11CârceaCA22Middle/Late Neolithic and Eneolithic (M_NEO) (5500–4500 BC) (Boian-Zau and Gumelniţa cultures)IclodI33VărăştiVa/BV1414CurăteştiCu22Sultana-Valea OrbuluiSu1612Sultana-Malu RoşuSMR1010Eneolithic (Eneol) (4500–3800 BC) (Decea Mureşului culture)Decea MureşuluiDM22Early Bronze Age (E_BA) (2600–2100 BC) (Copăceni culture)Floreşti-PolusP22Late Bronze Age (L_BA) (1500–1100 BC) (Noua culture)Floreşti-PolusP99Open in a separate windowOpen in a separate windowFig 1Geographic location of ten Romanian sites analyzed in the present study.

(The figure has been provided by M. Rotea and T. Károly).

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Ancient DNA analysis was performed from 80 teeth remains belonging to 63 individuals recovered from ten prehistoric sites (Table 1, Fig 1 and S1 Table). We have performed 14C dating for eleven human remains from six Romanian sites (S8 Fig). One of the samples was discarded because it provided inconsistent dating, while the others were consistent with the archeological dating. Fifty nine informative mtDNA sequences were obtained from a total of 63 individuals, accounting for an overall efficiency of 93% (4 individuals were discarded due to inconsistent results) (S2 Table, Supporting Information). A number of individuals (17%) has been replicated independently, which consisted in performing the extraction, amplification and sequencing of two samples from the same individual by different researchers at different periods of time. The number of molecular targets was quantified for each extract by means of RT-qPCR. The results showed that the number of molecules/μl in the extracts ranged between 200–66000 (S2 Table), values falling within the limits proposed for reliable aDNA studies [33].

In order to identify any possible contamination that might have occurred in the different stages of the laboratory work, at least two extraction controls and several PCR negative controls were included in each amplification reaction. The rate of contamination for this analysis was 1.3%.

In addition, a total of 192 PCR products from 26 individuals were cloned, of which a minimum of ten clones per PCR product were selected and sequenced (S6 Table). The results were used to determine the degree of coincidence between the consensus sequence of the clones and the sequence obtained by direct sequencing. A mean of 8.20 mutations per fragment cloned (~100 pb) were rejected as these mutations were found uniquely in different clones. These mutations have been considered as artefacts resulting from post-mortem damage to aDNA.

The mtDNA variability observed in the samples from Early Neolithic in Romania (E_NEO) (n = 5, Gura Baciului, Negrileşti, and Cârcea sites), showed five haplotypes (haplotype diversity = 0.99±0.0395) that were assorted into four European haplogroups (H, HV, J and T1a) (Table 2). The haplogroup H is the most frequent in the present-day European populations and the haplogroups J and T1 are suggested to be as markers of the Neolithic diffusion from Near East [5].

Haplotype (ht) and haplogroup (hg) mtDNA distribution resulting of the analysis of 62 ancient individuals from Romania.ChronologySampleht%hg%Early Neolithic (E_NEO)GB2ht120J20GB3ht220HV20NE-1ht 4220H40Ca1ht1620HCa2ht1720T1a20Middle/Late Neolithic and Eneolithic (M_NEO)BV1; Va4; Va8; Su7; Su12; Su16; Su9; SMR-1; SMR-3; SMR-6; SMR-8ht1627H58.5BV2ht182.4HVa3ht212.4HVa6ht232.4HVa11ht272.4HVa12ht282.4HSu11; SMR-5ht334.8HSu14ht352.4HSu15ht362.4HSMR-4ht382.4HSMR-7ht392.4HSMR-9ht402.4HSMR-10ht412.4H2Cu1ht122.4U512.2Su3ht132.4U5Su13ht342.4USu1ht302.4U4Su8ht322.4U5bI8; I9ht44.8J12.2Va2ht202.4JVa5ht222.4JVa9ht252.4JCu2ht292.4K4.8Su4ht312.4KVa1ht192.4T14.8I6ht32.4T1aVa7ht242.4W2.4Va10ht262.4HV02.4SMR-2ht372.4R2.4Eneolithic (Eneol)DM3ht550K100DM4ht650KEarly Bronze Age (E_BA)P11ht750K100P12Aht750KLate Bronze Age (L_BA)P24ht912.5H137.5P25ht1012.5HP30ht1512.5HP26ht1112.5HV25P29ht1412.5HVP27ht1212.5U525P28ht1312.5U5P22; P23*ht812.5W12.5Open in a separate window

(* only considered one sample).

The sample of this chronological sequence from Romania is represented by 41 individuals from five different sites. Boian culture (c. 5300–4500 cal BC) can be framed in the Middle Neolithic period, while Gumelniţa (c. 4500–4000 cal BC) corresponds to the final stage of the Neolithic in Romania, called Eneolithic (also known as Chalcolithic or Copper Age) [28]. Gumelniţa and Boian are two related cultures, having the same area, same type of settlements, economy and burials, being only different in their chronology. Most archeologists believe that these two cultures represent a continuum [28, 34]. The samples from the Iclod site belong to the Zau culture (who is contemporary with both Boian and Gumelniţa). Therefore, we decided to analyse the samples belonging to Boian, Gumelniţa and Zau cultures together: for the sake of simplicity we will call them M_NEO during the population genetic analysis. In addition, no statitically significance differences were found between these sites, supporting the decision to analyse them together. The analysis of their mtDNA variability showed 29 mitochondrial haplotypes (haplotype diversity = 0.8095±0.0052), which were assorted into eight different haplogroups (H, HV, R, J, K, T, U, W) (Table 2). The most frequent is haplogroup H (58.5%), which showed a high diversity including 13 different haplotypes, while the next most frequent haplogroups were U (12.2%) and J (12.2%). Within haplogroup U five different haplotypes can be seen, with four of them corresponding to the subhaplogroups that were frequent in the European hunter-gatherers (U5 and U4). The haplogroups J and T (T1), which have been proposed as genetic markers of the Neolithic demic diffusion from the Near East [5], showed a frequency of 12.2% and 4.8% respectively. These values are similar to those found in modern European populations, and the same was true for the rest of the haplogroups (K, W, HV, R).

The samples of Eneolithic in Romania were obtained from two individuals recovered from the Decea Mureşului site (samples identified as Eneol) and belonging to a cultural phenomenon known under the same name. Generally, archaeologists consider that the Decea Mureşului culture is the result of a migration of non-indigenous populations coming from the North Pontic steppes [31]. The material culture of these intrusive communities differs fundamentally from that of the local Eneolithic cultures (e.g. Boian, Gumelniţa, Petresti, Cucuteni, Tiazapolgar, etc.) [28]. This is the reason why the samples of the Decea Mureşului culture were analysed separately of other cultures from the same chronological sequence (e.g. the local Gumelniţa culture).

The two different mitochondrial haplotypes obtained in two individuals recovered from the Decea Mureşului cemetery correspond to haplogroup K. These haplotypes are unique, not found in any prehistoric sample, either Romanian or European (Table 2). These mitochondrial DNA haplotypes have only been found, albeit with a low frequency, in the present-day Middle East populations (1%).

The two individuals from the Copăceni group, an Early Bronze Age site (E_BA), showed two different haplotypes, which are included in haplogroup K. These haplotypes are common in present-day and ancient European populations. On the other hand, the mtDNA data obtained from Noua Culture, a Late Bronze Age site (L_BA) in Romania, correspond to eight different haplotypes (haplotype diversity = 0.8889±0.0074), assorted into four European haplogroups (H, HV, U5 and W) (haplogroup diversity = 0.8214±0.1007). It should be highlighted that the haplotypes ht12 and ht13 in the L_BA site, belonging to subhaplogroup U5 (one of the most ancient in Europe) were also found in the Middle-Late Neolithic (M_NEO) groups from Romania (Table 2). One of the haplotypes (ht8 corresponding to haplogroup W) was found in two different individuals in the L_BA site (P22 and P23) (Table 2). As archaeological and anthropological context suggested a possible kinship relation between these two individuals, the analysis of five autosomic STRs in the samples was performed (AMG, D13S317, D2S1338, D18S51, D16S5399 AmpFlSTR MiniFiler PCR amplication Kit, Life Technologies); this genetic analysis confirmed that they likely were sister and brother (initially called “Romeo and Juliet” as they were thought to be a young couple of lovers [35]) (S2 Table). For this reason, only one of these two individuals has been included in the diversity and statistical analysis.

A pairwise Fst test based on the mitochondrial haplotype variability showed significant differences between ancient (present study) and modern Romanian populations [36] (S3 Table). No conclusions can be drawn for Eneol and E_BA populations due to the small sample size of those groups (n = 2). When the analysis was performed on the mitochondrial haplogroup variability, the M_NEO and present-day Romania (ROM) populations did not show statistical differences. Analysis of Median Joining Network within prehistoric Romanian populations (presented in the S1 Fig), showed that the most frequent haplotype was rCRS (the central node in the Network, ht16 in Table 2), that was shared by individuals from the Early Neolithic (E_NEO), Middle/Late Neolithic and Eneolithic (M_NEO) and present-day (ROM) groups. Two other shared haplotypes in this network were the 16270 (ht13, U5 in Table 2) and 16192–16270 (ht12, U5 in Table 2), polymorphisms that appeared in M_NEO and L_BA groups. The rest of the haplotypes are specific to each archeological/cultural group.

As it can be seen in the network (S1 Fig), the higher haplotype diversity corresponded to mtDNA lineages from Middle/Late Neolithic and Eneolithic (M_NEO), where haplogroup H presented a high frequency and diversity values (S1 Fig). Therefore, a network including the haplotypes of both the M_NEO and the present-day Romanian [36] populations was built in order to analyze the mtDNA variability shared by these two populations (S2 Fig). It can be observed that most of the shared polymorphisms belong to haplogroup H.

The first Neolithic inhabitants of Europe are described archeologically as belonging to the Aegean Early Neolithic cultures [27], from which the bearers of both the Starčevo-Criş-Körös complex in Serbia, Romania and Hungary [28, 37] and the Linear Pottery culture in Central Europe (LBK) [21] emerged. No statistical significant differences were found between mtDNA frequency distribution of these two cultures which is in line with the archaeological evidence of a common origin in the Sesklo cultural complex. It is noteworthy to observe that the haplogroup N1a found in the individuals of LBK culture and which is considered a hallmark of the Early Neolithic populations in Central Europe was absent in the Starčevo-Criş culture groups; however, a bias due to the low number of Early Neolithic samples from Romania cannot be excluded as a cause for this difference (S3 Fig).

The population corresponding to the Boian, Zau and Gumelniţa cultures from Romania studied here (n = 41) was compared with populations of Central Europe represented by the Baalberge, Salzmünde and Bernburg cultures [21], because of their chronological proximity. The S4 Fig shows that both groups share similar frequencies for haplogroups J, R, U and W, whereas important differences were found for haplogroups H (58.5% in Romania and 22% in Central Europe), K (4.8% and 17% respectively) and T (4.8% and 14.8% respectively). Haplogroups N and X were absent in the Middle/Late Neolithic and Eneolithic (M_NEO) Romanian population. This led to statistically significant differences between Romanian and Central European Neolithic populations for both mtDNA haplogroups and haplotypes (p = 0.00000±0.0000). Median Joining Network analysis of the mtDNA haplotypes of M_NEO groups from Romania and Central Europe displayed differences in their haplotypes distributions (S5 Fig). The only shared polymorphisms are those corresponding to the rCRS (central node of the Network) and polymorphisms 16069 (haplogroup J) and 16298 (haplogroup HV).

The mitochondrial haplotypes obtained in two individuals recovered from the Decea Mureşului site belonged to haplogroup K (Table 2). Therefore, we have performed a Median Joining Network for this haplogroup (S6 Fig), which includes all haplotypes corresponding to the ancient populations of Romania (present study), Czech Republic (Vedrovice) [38], Near Eastern [22], as well as present-day populations (Romania, Near Eastern and Eastern Europe). The network showed that the only shared polymorphisms between Decea Mureşului samples and the rest are those of the central node and two other polymorphisms shared with ancient and modern Near Eastern populations.

Important population shifts due to migratory events coming especially from the East occurred in the Bronze Age on the present territory of Romania. The Early Bronze Age II phase of Florești-Polus site is represented by a novel culture (Copăceni group) characterized by the presence of tumuli and megaliths, and associated with the Yamnaya culture from the Crimea/Volga basin [29, 35]. From this stage, only two individuals were available, who showed the same haplogroup K. In contrast, the late phase of Florești-Polus site represents a new migration event related to the Noua-Sabatinovka culture [29, 35]. Therefore we compared the mtDNA haplogroup frequency of L_BA individuals from Polus with a Bronze Age group from Ukraine [39] (S7 Fig). These two Bronze Age populations shared haplogroups H, U and W, with the largest differences referred to the frequency of haplogroup W. The Bronze Age Ukraine population presented the highest mtDNA haplogroup diversity, due most likely to its large sample size. Significant statistical differences between these groups have not been detected.

We have analyzed the variability of mtDNA haplogroups of ancient Romania groups in the context of other ancient and present-day populations from Europe and Middle East (S4 Table) through two different multivariate analyses: PCA and MDS, Figs ​Figs22 and ​and3.3. Eneolithic (Eneol) and Early Bronze Age (E_BA) samples from Romania were excluded due to their small sample size. In Figs ​Figs22 and ​and3,3, the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Multidimensional Scaling Analysis (MDS) are shown.

Open in a separate windowFig 2Principal Component Analysis (47% of the total variance) performed considering mtDNA haplogroup frequencies of the ancient and present-day European and Near East populations.

In green Neolithic populations, in pink Hunter-Gatherer groups (HG), in yellow ancient and present-day Romania groups, present-day European population in blue and present-day Near East population in orange. Interpretation based on the haplogroup frequency has been written on both PC (Absence of haplogroups D, M, C and N on one side of the first component and absence of haplogroup H on the top of the second component). PC1 represents 30% of variance and PC2 represents 17% of variance.

Open in a separate windowFig 3Multidimensional Scaling Analysis performed by haplogroup frequencies of the ancient and present-day European and Near East populations.

In green Neolithic populations, in pink hunter-gatherer groups and in yellow ancient and present-day Romanian groups, present-day European population in blue and present-day Near East population in orange. Stress: 0.07553 and RSQ: 0.99071.

The two first components of the PCA explained 47% of the variance. PC1, representing 30% of the total variance, was related to the haplogroups D, C, M and N (0.962, 0.952, 0.942 and 0.717 respectively). Present-day European populations lay at one end of this axis, the opposite end being associated to the Middle East populations. Prehistoric populations are distributed following a heterogeneous pattern between these two extremes (Fig 2). Early Neolithic (E_NEO) populations from Romania and Central Europe clustered together, while the Middle/Late Neolithic and Eneolithic (M_NEO) population from Romania is not clustered with the Middle Neolithic from Central Europe, but with the modern European populations instead. Overall, a similar conclusion can be inferred from PC2 (17% of the total variance). In this case, the variation is explained by haplogroup H, which had the highest correlation value with this component (0.691). The M_NEO group from Romania showed a high frequency for haplogroup H (58.5%), basically similar to modern Europeans, but different from the Early Neolithic groups from Romania.

Finally, a MDS providing a two-dimensional view of a FST distances matrix was performed. FST values were calculated according to the frequency of the mitochondrial haplogroups. The results of this analysis are shown in Fig 3, with a reliable graphic representation of the genetic distances (RSQ of 0.99071 and Stress of 0.07553). As previously shown, hunter-gatherer populations in Scandinavia [8–10] and Central Europe [11, 21] (HG_SCA and HG_CE) are clearly different from all other populations in the analysis. The Early Neolithic groups from Romania and Central Europe [14–15, 21] (E_NEO_Romania and E_NEO_CE) are close despite differences in haplogroup distribution (S3 Fig). In contrast, the Middle Neolithic groups from Romania and Central Europe [21] (M_NEO_Romania and M_NEO_CE) are separated. In the case of Romania, the M_NEO group had a higher genetic distance from the Early Neolithic (E_NEO_Romania) than with the present-day Romanian population. On the contrary, Early and Middle Neolithic populations in Central Europe [21] lay closer to each other than any of them with the present population of the same area. Lastly, the Late Bronze Age Romanian group is closer to Bronze Age from Ukraine than to the M_NEO_Romania (Fig 3).

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In the present study we analysed mtDNA from 59 Neolithic, Eneolithic and Bronze Age individuals recovered from ten archaeological sites in Romania (Table 1), in order to evaluate the potential genetic impact of the different ancient populations in South-East Europe spanning from Early Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age (6300 BC to 1100 BC) on the genetic composition of present-day European populations.

One of the most hotly debated aspects concerning the origin of Europeans is represented by the relative contribution of Palaeolithic/Mesolithic hunter-gatherers versus the Neolithic farmers for the genetic heritage of modern populations. Two major models for the role of Neolithic farmers and the spread of agriculture have been proposed: a demic diffusion (DD) model and a cultural diffusion (CD) model. In the DD model the Neolithic farmers have a much bigger genetic impact on the make-up of modern Europeans than in de CD model. Although early analyses considered only two models, a number of mtDNA studies in Neolithic populations have indicated a more complex pattern for Neolithic transition. Thus, the random dispersion model proposes that Neolithic farmers had a different impact on the various geographic regions (central Europe, Mediterranean Europe and Cantabrian fringe), at different periods of time [12, 17, 20–23].

Studies from Central and West Europe, especially the analysis of mitochondrial diversity of LBK culture groups, showed no continuity between the first farmers of Europe and the modern Europeans, thus proposing that these Neolithic pioneers had little genetic impact on the current European population [11, 14–15, 21]. This hypothesis is supported by our data, which show a close genetic proximity of Early Neolithic group from Romania (Starčevo-Criş culture) with Early Neolithic populations such as LBK but no genetic continuity with modern Romanian populations (Figs ​(Figs22 and ​and3,3, S3 Table). These data are in line with the idea of a common origin of the LBK and Starčevo-Criş cultures from the Aegean Neolithic cultures of Northern Greece/Thessaly, the first Neolithic complex in Europe [24]. The differential distribution of the mtDNA haplogroup in both Early Neolithic groups (S3 Fig)—highlighting the absence of N1a lineage in E_NEO_Romania, a Neolithic marker in Central Europe—may reflect a differential genetic impact of the Neolithic pioneers in these areas.

A comprehensive study of mtDNA spanning a period from the Early Neolithic to the Bronze Age in Central European populations has been recently completed [21]. In this study, by comparing different Neolithic populations of Central Europe with a Central European metapopulation, the authors proposed four major demographic events. Their analysis supported a model of continuity between Late Neolithic and modern European populations, while Early and Middle Neolithic populations showed a limited genetic impact in this region. A similar genetic shift has been identified by an exhaustive analysis based on haplogroup H [40], showing a minimal genetic continuity between Early Neolithic and Middle/Late Neolithic groups in Central Europe, which the authors consider ‘a previously unrecognised major genetic transition’ [40].

Several scenarios have been proposed to account for this genetic shift between Early/Middle and Late Neolithic in Central Europe, suggesting an influence of the CWC (Corded Ware culture) from the East and of the BBC (Bell Beaker culture) from the West in the Late Neolithic. The impact of people of the CWC culture, in turn massively influenced by a possible influx of populations from the East from the Yamnaya culture, has been proposed to be especially important [41]. While this idea is certainly possible, none of the models studied to date have taken into consideration another possible and obvious explanation, namely a new wave of Neolithic migration into Europe through the ‘traditional route’ of the Balkan Peninsula. This new wave of Neolithic migrations are represented by Vinča and Dudeşti cultures (5500–5000 BC), that trace their origin in North-West Anatolia on the basis of ceramics features [28]. The Boian, Zau and Gumelniţa cultures from Middle-Late Neolithic (M_NEO) from Romania are the direct continuation of this cultural complex; the M_NEO group from Romania displayed differences in haplotype (S5 Fig) and haplogroup distributions (S4 Fig) with the Middle Neolithic from Central Europe.

Interestingly, the genetic analysis of a relatively large number of samples of Boian, Zau and Gumelniţa cultures in Romania (n = 41) (M_NEO) identified a close genetic proximity between this Neolithic group and the Eastern and Central extant European populations. This was shown in the multivariate analysis, where M_NEO and modern populations from Romania are very close, in contrast with Middle Neolithic and modern populations from Central Europe (Figs ​(Figs22 and ​and3).3). Whereas the genetic analysis of modern populations from Central Europe showed a limited genetic impact of the E_NEO_CE and M_NEO_CE groups in this region [21], the mtDNA data of the M_NEO groups from Romania suggest a high genetic impact on modern population in this region (see S2 Fig for shared polymorphisms). The above mentioned data allow us to suggest that the populations of this putative second wave of Neolithic migration from Anatolia caused a much stronger impact on the genetic make-up of the European populations than the earlier farmers of the Starčevo-Criş and LBK cultures.

This hypothesis is supported by the larger number of archaeological sites for the Middle/Late Neolithic and Eneolithic cultures compared with Early Neolithic cultures in South-East Europe, which indicates higher population numbers [28–29]. It is reasonable to hypothesize an interaction of the Vinča-Dudești and Zau-Boian-Gumelniţa cultures with the Late Neolithic cultures of Central Europe. This would have led to gene flow and permeation in Central Europe cultures of mtDNA lineages from the second great Neolithic migrations of South-East Europe, and may have had an important contribution to the genetic shift between Early and Late Neolithic populations in Europe. The hypothesized contribution of Middle Neolithic migrations from North-West Anatolia into the Balkan Peninsula and Central Europe may explain the position of the BBC (Late Neolithic in Central Europe), close to the M_NEO groups from Romania in the multivariate analysis (Figs ​(Figs22 and ​and33).

One last aspect concerns the presence of U haplogroups in four individuals from two of the Middle/Late Neolithic sites: Curatesti and Sultana-Valea Orbului. While it could be argued that these individuals share a genetic background with European hunter-gatherers [42] that interacted with and adopted farmer lifestyles, more genetic studies to include local hunter-gatherer populations and nuclear DNA are needed to discern such a possibility. On the other hand, it should be pointed out that no statistical differences of mtDNA between the Curatesti and Sultana-Valea Orbului sites and the other Middle/Late Neolithic populations from Romania were detected.

Two Eneolithic (Eneol) individuals from Romania have been analyzed, showing the same mitochondrial haplotype (haplogroup K) (Table 2). These haplotypes are unique, not found in any mtDNA database of ancient populations. The network performed with the haplotypes corresponding to haplogroup K (S6 Fig) showed that the two individuals from the Decea Mureşului site shared polymorphisms with the ancient and present-day populations from the Near East. Although the two individuals from Decea Mureşului are associated to the Suvorovo culture from the North-Pontic steppes [29–32], and this has been suggested to represent the first contact between Transylvania and North-Pontic steppes, we have not found genetic evidence in the present study to support this hypothesis.

The archeological data from the Bronze Age in the central Transylvanian plateau of Romania describe at least three major cultures, two of them probably originating and being related to cultures from the East: 1) the Early Bronze Age represented by Copăceni group in the Floreşti-Polus site, which is related to the Yamnaya culture [29]; and 2) the Late Bronze Age complex from Floreşti-Polus site which is related to the Noua-Sabatinovka culture from the North of Black Sea [29]. The most representative number of samples (n = 9) corresponded to the Late Bronze Age (L_BA_Romania). This sample showed a closer genetic similarity with the Bronze Age population from Ukraine than to any other ancient population from Romania. Both FST distance (S3 Table) and multidimensional scaling analysis (Figs ​(Figs22 and ​and3)3) showed significant differences between Late Bronze Age and Middle Neolithic from Romania, although both populations shared two haplotypes corresponding to haplogroup U5 (ht12 and 13) (Table 2). These results could reflect the influence of migrations from the East into the Bronze Age population of Romania. On the other hand, the unusual mtDNA haplogroup distribution [(H (37.5%), U (25%), HV (25%), W (12.5%)], described in the L_BA_Romania group and the genetic distance to the modern Romania population (Fig 3), suggest that the contribution of L_BA_Romania to the present-day Romanians was relatively limited. Nevertheless, studies on more individuals are necessary to draw definitive conclusions. Also, the impact of the early Bronze Age migrations on the modern South-East Europeans cannot be assessed in our study, due to the low number of samples.

Finally, in this study we report genetic information on the Neolithic and Bronze Age populations of the Balkan Peninsula, a crucial piece of the puzzle integrating the major demographic and cultural changes that took place from the Neolitic period onwards in South-East Europe. Based on aDNA studies from sites of the Starčevo-Criş culture (Cârcea/Gura Baciului/Negrileşti sites), we confirm their genetic relationship with the LBK culture, both originating in the Proto-Sesklo cultures of Northern Greece. In addition, our data support the strong genetic differences between these first European farmers and the later Neolithic farmers. In addition, we provide for the first time a glimpse to the genetic make-up of the farmers from a later Neolithic migration from Anatolia Vinča and Dudești cultures that later evolved in the Boian, Zau and Gumelniţa cultures in South-East Europe. The strong genetic resemblance of individuals from these cultures with the modern populations leads us to propose the hypothesis that they had an important contribution to the genetic heritage of Eastern and Central Europeans. In contrast, no such influence could be demonstrated for Late Bronze Age migrations.

All in all, these data leads to the hypothesis that the Early to Middle/Late Neolithic genetic transition in South-East Europe was strongly influenced by a second migration of farmers from Anatolia during the Middle Neolithic. This scenario may thus lead to a model in which a cultural diffusion process initially brought into Central Europe by small numbers of farmers of the Starčevo-Criş and LBK cultures was later accompanied by a demic expansion of larger numbers of immigrant farmers of the Vinča-Dudeşti and Boian-Gumelniţa cultures. Additional studies are needed in order to define in detail the Neolithic processes of migration in South-East Europe, including an assessment of the local Mesolithic populations, and a more extensive study assessment of Neolithic and Bronze Age Balkan cultures.

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A mtDNA analysis of a total of 63 individuals recovered from ten sites located in Northern and Southern Romania was carried out; the chronology of these sites ranges from Early Neolithic to the Late Bronze Age. The Early Neolithic (6500–5500 cal BC) sites of Cârcea (Dolj county), Negrileşti (Galaţi county) and Gura Baciului (Cluj county) are associated to the Starčevo-Criş culture (VI millennium BC). Another five sites correspond to Middle/Late Neolithic and Eneolithic period (5500–3800 cal BC): Iclod (Cluj county), Vărăşti (Călăraşi county), Curăteşti (Călăraşi county), Sultana-Malu Roşu (Călăraşi county) and Sultana-Valea Orbului (Călăraşi county). The Late Eneolithic period (4500–3800 BC) is represented by Decea Mureşului site (Alba county), and finally the Bronze Age period by the site of Floresti-Polus (Cluj county). These ten sites were put into several cultural and chronological groups, in order to characterize changes in the mtDNA variability from Early Neolithic (E_NEO) to Late Bronze Age (L_BA) (Fig 1 and Table 1, S7 Fig).

Five individuals from the Early Neolithic Romania period come from three sites: 1) Cârcea site is located on the banks of the Cârcea River. Most of the human bones were found in the settlement's "defense ditch" and they were among ceramic fragments and animal bones [43]. 2) Negrileşti is a grave found at 2.90 m depth. The skeleton lying on the right side with bent legs carried on the abdomen and the chest a deposit of snails and a stone [44]. 3) Gura Baciului burials consisted of an inhumation and incineration pit where seven skeletons were inhumated in a bent position [45–46].

Forty-five samples from individual graves have been recovered from five Middle and Late Neolithic sites. From geographical point of view most of these sites are placed in southeaster area of Romania, near Danube River (Vărăşti) or on the high terrace of Mostiştea Lake (Curăteşti, Sultana-Malu Roşu, Sultana-Valea Orbului). The only exception is the Iclod cemetery that is located in Transylvania, on the banks of the Someşul Mic River. In terms of cultural framework, Iclod cemetery belongs to Zau culture [47–48]; Curăteşti and Sultana-Valea Orbului to Boian culture [49], and Vărăşti and Sultana-Malu Roşu are settlements belonging to Boian and Gumelniţa communities using the same cemetery[49].

This period is represented by Decea Mureşului site (Alba county), dated in the end of the 5th millennium BC. Samples for mtDNA analysis were taken from two of the discovered graves. Exceptional grave goods and the use of ocher and stone mace-head, represent the first contact (migration) between Transylvania and North-Pontic steppes [50].

Two samples were taken from the great barrow/tumulus from Floresti-Polus (Cluj county) [51–52]. This funerary complex belongs to Copaceni group, dating from the period II of the Early Bronze Age in Transylvania. The Yamnaya culture (Pit-Grave culture) [53–54], that influence this group, appears at the end of 4th millennium BC in the north steppes of the Black Sea [55] and, later it cover a large area to the west, including Transylvania.

Nine samples for mtDNA analysis come from eight graves from Floresti-Polus (the largest necropolis of Noua culture from Transylvania) [51]. The local populations contributed to cultural genesis of this archaeological complex (Monteoru and Komarov cultures from Moldavia and some eastern contribution—most often attributed to the Iranian people (ancestors cimirienilor, scythians) who, in the second millennium BC dominated a Ponto-Caspian steppes) [56].

The processing of the ancient samples in the laboratory involved the application of a series of strict criteria for the authentication of results, detailed in [57–60]. In our case, the extraction and preparation of the PCR was undertaken in a specific lab for aDNA, which consist in a positive-pressure sterile chamber, located in a physically separated space from the laboratory where post-PCR processes are carried out. All the work surfaces were cleaned regularly with sodium hypochlorite and irradiated with UV light. Suitable disposable clothing was worn (lab coat, mask, gloves and cap). Contamination controls were applied in both the extraction and amplification processes.

Selection of samples for performing the present study was made from teeth without caries or deep fissures that might extend into the pulp. Whenever possible, more than one tooth was taken from each individual for duplicate analysis, with the duplicates being analysed in various sessions by different researchers at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU).

In order to eliminate surface contamination, the teeth were subjected to a process of depurination using acids, and the entire surface was irradiated with ultraviolet light [61]. The extraction process followed the protocol described by [62]: the tissue (root of the tooth or powdered bone) was incubated with stirring for 2 hours at 56°C in a lysis buffer (5 ml) (0.5 M EDTA pH 8.0–8.5; 0.5% SDS; 50 mM Tris HCl pH 8.0; 0.01 mg/ml proteinase K). The DNA was recovered using phenol and chloroform and then concentrated and purified (Centricon-30, Amicon). Each extraction session involved two contamination controls that were applied to the entire process, except no dental or bone tissue was added.

Sequencing of HVR-I [nucleotide positions (nps) 15,998–16,400] and HVR-II (nps 16504–429) as per [63], was undertaken in six overlapping fragments, each with a length of approximately 100 bp (base pair). Besides, the fragment between primers 8F and 8R [12] was amplified in all samples to determine position 73 of HVR-II of the mtDNA. The amplification of each fragment was undertaken in independent PCRs. In the case of positive amplification and the absence of cont